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One of the key instruments framing cooperation between the European Union (EU) and third countries for purposes of expelling irregular third-country nationals are the EU Readmission Agreements (EURAs).

The European Migration Agenda, adopted by the European Commission in May 2015, acknowledged that the EU expulsions system is “ineffective” in view of the rates of successful returns of third-country nationals given a removal order.

The European Commission and EU Member States make often reference to the unwillingness of third countries to readmit their own nationals as one of the main obstacles for increasing return rates.

How do the EURAs deal with the identity determination dilemmas? This chapter provides a comparative assessment of the procedures and administrative rules envisaged by six EURAs as regards the identity determination of nationals to be readmitted. How do the EURAs envisage the ways in which the nationality of the person involved is to be determined and what are the main means of evidence? The EURA with Pakistan is taken as the basis of comparison with the five EURAs that have been concluded since 2011, i.e. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cape Verde, Georgia and Turkey.

This chapter examines the challenges affecting the implementation of EURAs once entered into force. Particular attention is paid to the challenges emerging from the identity determination dilemma explained and substantiated in Chap. .

This book has identified and critically examined the implementation challenges of EURAs. The efficiency and legitimacy of EU and its Member States’ expulsion policies are being currently tested by several EU institutional instances from the perspective of enforced return rates as a percentage of the number of removal orders being issued.