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<jats:p>The aim of this study was to investigate the endurance performance in the male basketball players according to age categories. Totally 89 male healthy basketball players (age between 10-16 years) were voluntarily participated in this study. The age categories are determined as under 12 age (U12) novice, under 14 age (U14) little, under 16 age (U16) youth and under 18 age (U18) junior. 20 m shuttle-run test applied to determine the endurance performances of the subjects. VO2max, number of laps and total distance parameters are examined. It has been found that endurance performance increases with age. However, this increase was determined to be significantly different between the age categories (p&lt;0.05). Although it was determined that endurance performance increased with age in male basketball athletes, there is no significant difference in endurance performance between U12 and U14. It is recommended to examine the lack of difference between novice and little teams in terms of adolescence and/or transition to adolescence.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Nordic walking is one of the forms of physical activity used in recreation as well as in medical treatment, prevention and rehabilitation. The aim of the research was to determine the impact of aerobic endurance training using a continuous (uninterrupted) method in a 12-week training cycle divided into three mesocycles on psychophysical well-being of men and women. Psychophysical well-being and the quality of life were investigated. The SF-36v2 (Short Form Health Survey) questionnaire was used to assess the quality of life, while the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC) and other research tools were used to assess psychophysical well-being. The research was exploratory in nature and explained the impact of Nordic walking aerobic endurance training on psychophysical well-being. A theoretical and purposeful selection of the study sample was applied in the research. The study involved a group of 136 persons of different ages, of whom 71.3% (97 persons) were women and 28.7% were men (39 persons). Data analysis was conducted with a use of Dell Statistica (data analysis software system) version 13. The analysis of correlations of qualitative features was performed using the χ² (Chi-square) test. The training cycle had a positive effect on psychophysical well-being. High values of the dimensions of internal control of one’s health significantly affect psychophysical well-being. The greater the internal control of one’s health, the greater the sense of psychophysical well-being. After the analysis, a significant relationship was found between the respondents’ age and the subscales of the quality of life (physical health, physical functioning, physical activity and pain) according to R. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient at the level of p&lt;0.05. The higher the indicators of physical health during physical activity, the greater the sense of psychophysical well-being. A diagnosis of psychophysical well-being after completing aerobic Nordic walking endurance training in a 12-week cycle showed a significant impact on psychophysical well-being of men and women of various ages.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Somatotype reflects the overall appearance of the body and gives significance to its overall morphological status and may be significant for selection in sports activities and maybe may lead to avoiding mistakes for selection of potential athletes and rejecting of some children or incorrectly selecting. A puberty period of boys is characterized by changes of somatotype because of accelerated skeletal growth and increase of muscle mass what is directly connected with increasing the maximum oxygen supply and improving endurance in sports. Because the training for running on middle distances aim at improving aerobic energy systems can lead to increase endurance, this research was conducted to determine the effects of the training process for runners on the middle distances on the somatotype to obtain guidelines for selection in the youth age of the male population and to avoid possible errors in determining talent and directing into a wrong sports branch. The male subjects aged 16 years were divided into two groups - the experimental group consisted of 86 respondents and the control group of 82 respondents. After eight weeks of the training program, there were positive effects on values of variables VO2max and running on 1500m. The training process for runners on middle distances had positive effects on the somatotype of respondents and can be used to change the somatotype because the statistical analysis of the χ2 test showed a statistically significant difference between the initial and final state of somatotype distribution of the experimental group after the training process increased the percentage of respondents who have a talent for sport, then those who have predispositions for endurance sports and predispositions for sports.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The European Handball Championship (EHC), along with the Olympic Games and the World Championships, is the largest sports event in handball. In everyday practice, there is a need for exact measuring of interest for some activity or sport in a particular geographical area. The aim of this paper is to investigate the impact of the organization of the 2018 EHC on public interest in Handball in the territory of the Republic of Croatia. Keywords entered into an Internet search engine can be a useful resource for analyzing the public interest. For the purposes of this study we used the Google Trends network tool for detecting interests before, during and after the EHC. The results show that the greatest interest for handball was expressed in Varaždin county, whereas the 5 top cities were: Varaždin (100%), followed by Osijek (63%), Zagreb (61%), Split (55%), and Rijeka (52%). The presented results show that the organization of major sports events as the EHC affects the increase of interest, and in the analyzed case the interest during the EHC increased up to twenty times compared to the average values (3.14% max values) that occur during the analyzed period.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Consequences of falls in older adults are a serious issue and challenge for healthcare systems. Many of the falls result in serious injuries, including bone fractures, which necessitate long hospital stays; and their consequences often have unfavourable effect on the level of functional independence of older adults. Balance disorders and resulting falls are related to the natural processes of ageing, including weakened muscle strength and gradual decrease of function of all the systems of the body. It seems that a properly planned and conducted intervention programme may be an important factor in preventing falls in this age group. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess changes in balance and falls risk index in women aged over 50 years following two different types of training. The study involved 36 physically active females (mean age 67.11±5.35). Within the intervention, the studied women participated in a programme of whole-body training (8 weeks) and strength training (8 weeks). Balance assessment, including falls risk index, to determine the changes induced by the training was performed four times (before and after both training programmes) with the use of the Balance System SD platform by Biodex. We observed a significant improvement of balance, particularly in trials with eyes open, for both types of training and for the whole period of intervention. The risk of falls index decreased significantly, too. We found that the different type of exercise in regard to movement structure and to the type of impact influenced individual balance indices (overall stability index, anterior/posterior stability index, medial/lateral stability index) in slightly different ways. This may be a premise for designing intervention programmes targeted at falls prevention in older adults. Moreover, it turned out that the balance levels can be trained even in physically active subjects.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Results of experimental studies suggest that regular physical exercise improves general cognitive function such as attention, memory or speed of information processing in elderly. Despite relatively numerous studies that have demonstrated the benefits of the cognitive area the researchers emphasize the need for further research. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of regular Nordic walking (NW) exercises on the selection of visual stimuli in older women and to establish correlations between perceptual and physical fitness benefits. The study examined 60 women aged 64 to 93 years in three groups. Twenty people participated in a 3-month programme combining NW and CT (group NW+CT), 20 people participated only in NW classes (group NW), and 20 people were a control group (group C). The Attention and Perceptivity Test, the Fullerton Functional Fitness Test, and the Romberg balance tests were conducted. The improvements in abilities to select visual stimuli were found in both experimental groups. Almost all indices of improved physical fitness were positively correlated with indices of improved visual perception. NW training connected with simple cognitive exercises is effective in improving ability to select visual stimuli. Physical training should involve both aerobic and strength exercises combined with cognitive exercises.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between the quality of life and health satisfaction with the level of sport performance in individuals practicing wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, rowing and individual sports. The research included 192 athletes with disabilities, aged 19 to 49, from all over Poland. Males accounted for almost 80% of the subjects. The group of respondents included people who practice either competitive (classified) (n=66) (World Champions, Polish Champions) or amateur (unclassified) (n=126) sports. The standardized questionnaire of the World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL-BREF) and a self-designed questionnaire were used. Nonparametric statistics were applied in the analyses of the results. The value of p≤0.05 was assumed to be statistically significant. It was found that amateurs felt greater health satisfaction and assessed their quality of life higher than the Polish Champions (p≤0.05). However, in the environmental domain, it was the Polish Champions who achieved better results (p≤0.05). In the social, physical and psychological domains, higher scores were achieved by amateur athletes as compared to the Polish and World Champions (p≤0.05). Wheelchair basketball athletes were more satisfied with their health and quality of life, as well as other domains (apart from environmental), as compared to wheelchair rugby and rowing athletes (p≤0.05). People aged 25-34, with education above the secondary level, employed, felt best about their quality of life. Improving the quality of life should be an important goal in the rehabilitation and training process of people with disabilities practicing sports.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The aim of the study was to describe generational changes in the rate of puberty and motor skills of nonmenstruating and menstruating girls from eastern Poland in the years 1986–2016. The research material consisted of the results of 11,700 girls from eastern Poland. Physical fitness was assessed by means of the International Physical Fitness Test. Based on the test answers regarding the date of the first menstruation, using the "status quo" method, the fraction of already menstruating girls in relation to all the studied female students, as well as the mean age of the menarche were calculated. The differences in the results between the individual stages of the research were estimated using the t-Student test for independent samples. In the analyzed thirty-year timeframe, in the eastern part of the country, the percentage of menstruating girls in relation to non-menstruating girls increased significantly, while the menarche age decreased. In non-menstruating girls, an improvement in the results of hand strength, torso strength and agility was observed, as well as a reduction in the power of the lower limbs, running endurance, speed and torso flexibility. Slight, statistically insignificant differences were found in functional strength. On the other hand, in menstruating girls the results in lower limb power, speed, running endurance, and torso flexibility had decreased. Only hand strength and torso strength results had improved. The results of functional strength and agility were at a similar level. Girls with the same calendar age, but with a different maturation rate, were characterized by similar secular trends in physical fitness. On the other hand, greater negative and smaller positive changes in the level of motor skills were found in menstruating girls.</jats:p>

<jats:p>This article presents selected results of the authors' research into the topic of strength ability of female competitive swimmers with the aim of optimising training to achieve the best possible results. Apart from a review of the literature on sports swimming, muscle strength analysis and the specificity of strength training in sports swimming, characteristic movements of the upper limbs observed during sports swimming are discussed and the results of previous research concerning the measurement of strength in female competitive swimmers are presented. The study group consisted of 12 female swimmers. Measurements were carried out twice. The first measurement took place in January 2014. After completing this series of measurements, the necessary changes were proposed. Measurement two took place in January 2015. Additionally, they had to be at least 14 years old. The subjects were included in the dietary catering. A high-protein and high-carbohydrate diet was used, tailored to the needs of each female athlete. The daily routine and lifestyle of the subjects consisted of two workouts (morning and afternoon). The lifestyle of the subjects and their nutrition can be considered comparable. To this end, laboratory measurements of biomechanical muscle properties were used, and land tests (static and dynamic), tethered swimming tests and isokinetic tests using state-of-the-art dynamometers were also conducted. The isokinetic arm measurement method should be used for the ongoing and periodic monitoring of female high level competitive swimmers. A specific annual strength training intervention is not sufficient to induce positive changes in arm muscle strength parameters in female competitive swimmers. General development, targeted and specific strength training of the arm muscles as well as compensatory and compensatory programmes tailored to the individual needs of high level competitive swimmers should be planned and applied to consistently eliminate possible deficiencies in strength parameters. Changes in some strength parameters of arm muscles over a yearly cycle had a positive effect on sports performance. Long-term, individualised programmes of improvement of specific strength parameters of arm muscles should be conducted to improve the performance of high-level sports swimmers.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Relative age effect is a worldwide phenomenon referring to the subtle age-related (dis)advantages of athletes in the same age category, particularly in soccer and ice-hockey. Although well-established knowledge has been achieved to a certain extent, a need for further research is still valid considering different demands of each sport and possible differences in the course of time. The purpose of this study was to investigate the participation trends among elite figure skaters in the world regarding relative age effect, and to determine whether a decade has made a difference. The study sample was composed of 2313 figure skaters competing between 2009-10 and 2018-19 seasons. They were categorized into four quartiles according to their birth months. Total and season by season analyses were conducted to project any possible seasonal effect over a decade. Chi-square (χ²) goodness-of-fit tests were used to determine asymmetries in distributions, and odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals were used to compare quartiles with each other. Effect sizes were calculated using Cramer’s V (V). The results differed for disciplines and genders. Relatively older male skaters in pairs discipline were significantly overrepresented (χ² = 8.528, p = 0.036, V = 0.11) and a trend favoring relatively younger skaters was determined in men’s singles discipline through the last three seasons. Season-based analyses revealed no relative age effect except for the last three seasons. In conclusion, disciplines of figure skating seem to have complex and different demands regarding relative age effect, and time seems to become a determinant for further studies.</jats:p>