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<jats:p>Adequate length and tension of postural muscles are necessary to maintain proper body posture and enable basic movement patterns to be correctly carried out. These muscles include the hamstrings. Research results show that these are often characterised by reduced elasticity and excessive passive stiffness. The aim of our study was to assess the relationship between hamstring shortening, body posture and excessive body weight in physically active boys. The study involved 69 boys aged from 6 to 19 years who regularly took part in football training (at least three times a week) for at least 12 months. Body height (calibrated anthropometer), body weight (electronic balance TANITA), torso positioning in three planes (ultrasonic system ZEBIS Pointer) and the flexibility of the hamstrings (goniometer) were analysed. Descriptive statistics, cardinality tables, the Kruskal-Wallis test and an effect size were used in statistical analysis. The reduction of hamstring elasticity in both legs was diagnosed in 50.72 % and in one leg in 13.05 % of the boys studied, while 24.65 % were overweight and 4.35 % were obese. No significant differences in the torso position were found in the groups distinguished by hamstring flexibility. However, subjects with hamstring shortening tended to have increased pelvic torsion, increased angular kyphosis and lumbar lordosis, have greater asymmetry of the right and left pelvis and shoulders, and increased scoliotic deformities. A significant correlation was found between hamstring flexibility, body weight and body mass index (BMI). Common hamstring shortening in boys taking part in football training does not significantly affect body posture but significantly correlates with body weight and BMI. Stretching exercises and soft tissue mobilisation techniques should be included in the football training of young players.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The purpose of this study was to analyze the gap between the current and optimal status of ambush marketing risk management in major sporting events. The research method was descriptive-causal comparative. The statistical population was all people who had the experience of leading sports caravans and being a member of the executive board for holding major sporting events. From them 160 people (by available-random method) were selected as a sample. Data collection tool was a researcher-made questionnaire consisting of factors affecting the management of risks arising from ambush marketing, which was set in two parts: the current situation and the desired situation. The face and content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by professors and sports experts. The reliability of the questionnaire was obtained through Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.86. Frequency table, frequency percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to analyze the data at the level of descriptive statistics. Due to the normality of data distribution, correlated t-test was used to compare the current situation of marketing management in ambush with the expected limit and paired t-test was used to analyze the gap between the current and desired status in a significant way (α = 0.05). The results showed that among the factors related to the management of marketing risks lurking in sporting events, cultural factors, spectator factors, rule factors, sport event management factors and media factors were lower than expected (average) and factors related to sports marketing, factors related to sporting events and factors related to sporting event sponsors were higher than expected. Analysis of the gap between the current and optimal status of ambush marketing risk management showed that in terms of professors, elites and organizers of sporting events, the situation of all aspects of ambush marketing risk management in sporting events is relatively weak.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The aim of the research was determining the differences, similarities and relations between time, distance and maximum speed occurring in the structure of exercises – small games. While selecting exercises, the assumption was to maintain similar internal load with various technical-tactical assumptions assessed with the help of parameters generated with the use of GPS and IMU technologies. Twelve basketball players took part in the research (age 24 ± 4.7 years; height 187.9 ± 5.2 cm; weight 83.9 ± 8.7 kg). 3 exercises simulating match conditions, and intervals between them lasted 5 minutes. The players played as long as one of the teams scored 25 points. The ranges of IMU like acceleration or deceleration were divided into I-VIII zones from the value of -8 to 8 m/s/s. To examine differences in total distance and total effort among three exercises, we performed repeated ANOVA measures. This test was statistically significant at alpha (ρ ≤ 0.05). The maximum speed and the longest distance were registered in Exercise. 1 and equalled 23.22 ± 1.73 km/h and 1097.75 ± 48.11 respectively. The longest distance covered in 1 minute was registered in Exercise 2 – 66.10 ± 5.72 m/m. For bands II to VII, there were significant differences between Exercise 3 and Exercise 1 and 2. The correlations between Exercise 2 and 3 in bands III,VII was statistically relevant. Training time aiming at reaching the same external load should be modified and not dependent on score results. Changeable time conditions result in the lack of load stability in a given exercise, hence its unpredictability as to the planned training load. The results of this research shall help coaches apply, in the right moment of a training cycle, tasks simulating match conditions of particular running load, controlling in this way a type of tiredness and its level.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Sport of the disabled has been becoming more and more popular for several years, and wheelchair basketball is one of the most popular disciplines among the disabled. However, playing sports is connected with the possibility of injuries and pain in people training a given discipline. The aim of this study is to determine the occurrence of injuries and to identify most commonly injuries in athletes practicing basketball in wheelchairs. A literature review was conducted in Embase and Medline PubMed databases. Basic search terms are: shoulder injury OR shoulder pain OR upper limb disease OR upper limb disorders OR upper limb pain AND basketball OR basketball player OR wheelchair sport OR wheelchair user OR wheelchair athlete OR wheelchair basketball OR disabled sport OR disabled persons.Results: 511 non-duplicate results were found. At the stage of the analysis of titles and abstracts, 483 were rejected and 28 were qualified for the analysis of full texts. The review included 2 that met all the criteria. The topic is not discussed in large numbers in the literature and requires further research specifically focused on the prevention of shoulder injury as well as assessment of the risk of damage to individual elements that make up the shoulder joint and surrounding structures.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Our study deals with long-term monitoring of physical fitness of soldiers, namely members of the 31st Regiment specialising in Radiation, Chemical and Biological Protection (prchbo) in order to determine whether the annual fitness test has rising trend, or in another words, whether the military service physical training process is fittingly effective. The study was carried out by comparing the assessment of physical fitness each year between 2012 and 2019. The monitored group consisted of 316 professional soldiers, who participated in this assessment regularly, without interruption in the same disciplines. Due to the managed long-term military physical training process, overall improvement in the strength and endurance disciplines throughout the monitoring period took place. Men improved by 0.32 sit-ups, 0.74 push-ups and 0.24 pull-ups in the strength tests. Women improved by 0.83 sit-ups and 0:21 min in pull-ups endurance test. Men improved by 55.8 meters in Cooper test and 0:17 min in swimming in the endurance tests. Women improved by 135.6 meters in Cooper test. Increase in the number of overall rating excellent and good and decrease in the assessment of satisfactory and unsatisfactory occurred concurrently in men throughout the monitoring period. Significant increase in the number of excellent assessments, while at the same time reduction in the number of evaluations good and satisfactory occurred in women. None of the women was assessed as unsatisfactory during the whole monitoring period. Based on the acquired data, it may be stated that in the monitored years, the annual testing showed rising trend and thus the efficiency of the in-service physical training process proved to be good and appropriate.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Vertical jump is seen as the main motor skill in basketball, on which the final result largely depends. The research was conducted with the aim of identifying the connection between morphological characteristics and the manifestation of tests for assessing the explosive power of lower limbs of adolescent basketball players (14.99±0.82 years of age). The assessment of the explosive power of lower limbs was done using the tensiometer Quattro Jump - Kistler Portable performance analysis system 2019, Type 9290DD Switzerland, and standardized tests countermovement jump and squat jump were applied. The system of predictor variables included the factor of longitudinal skeletal dimensions, transverse skeletal dimensions, body volume and weight factor, and subcutaneous adipose tissue factor. All anthropometric measures were strictly taken in accordance with IBP standards. The results of the regression analysis indicated that the system of predictor variables had a statistically significant effect on the manifestation of explosive power of lower limbs in the variable countermovement jump (P=0.05) and squat jump (P=0.01). High values of the coefficients of determination in both cases explain from 92% to 97% of the total variation. The predictor variable Wrist diameter (Beta = -0.78) had the highest significant negative correlation in the countermovement jump test, while the following predictor variables also had the highest significant negative correlation with the squat jump criterion: Chest circumference (Beta=-1.07), Body weight (Beta=-060) and Thigh circumference (Beta=-0.39). Furthermore, negative correlations of variables for the assessment of transverse skeletal dimensions in young basketball players and negative linear correlation of variables for the assessment of subcutaneous adipose tissue in both criteria were observed. The authors recommend dividing athletes by positions they play in, in order to obtain more accurate information about the negative correlation between morphological characteristics and vertical jump tests.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The study aims to analyses the prevalence of the Polish adult population in cycling in terms of their socio-demographic characteristics. This can make an important contribution to the dissemination of this environmentally, socially and economically sustainable form of physical activity, and in building national recommendations. The study was based on the representative data from the Ministry of Sport and Tourism of the Republic of Poland from five large-scale surveys in years 2014-2018. The sample comprised 7,347 Poles aged 15-69. In each survey long version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used. The independence tests and non-parametric test were applied to search for statistically significant difference between the studied variables. In order to capture relationships between commuter cycling prevalence and a set of explanatory variables, a predictive model was built. The prevalence of the Polish adult population in commuting by bicycle systematically increases (in 2014 ̶ 16.3%; in 2015 ̶ 17.4%; in 2016 – 21.5%; in 2017 ̶ 19.9%; in 2018 ̶ 29.8%). The average energy expenditure of this effort is also increasing. Poles most often cycle 1-3 times a week (17.7% once a week; 23% ̶ twice a week; 18.2% ̶ 3 times a week). There are no statistical differences in this regard, neither by the number of cycling days nor by the gender. Hierarchically, the most important factor in determining whether someone does or does not commute by bike, is age. People who are the most probable to cycle are those aged 15-29 (30%), and among them, people living in villages (35%), with primary education (42.6%). In the 30-59 age group, 20.6% are active. They are usually from the countryside (24.3%), mostly women (27%). Among people aged 60 or more, 14.2% cycle. Most often they are men (17.3%). National recommendations should be developed for individual age groups. Educational and motivational programs (scope depending on age), practical classes increasing the self-confidence of bicycle traffic participants and activities improving the bicycle infrastructure (including the implementation of intermodal transport) are necessary.</jats:p>

<jats:p>The purpose of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of learning a complex gymnastic routine with different frequencies of model demonstration controlled by the experimenter or self-controlled by learners. Fifty undergraduate physical education (PE) students were randomly assigned to 5 training groups: GF100 (100% frequency), GF20 (20% frequency), GFF (faded frequency), GSF (self-controlled frequency) and GYF (yoked group). All five groups followed the same experimental design, with one difference: groups GF100, GF20 and GFF observed model demonstration under externally controlled frequency, whereas group GSF self-controlled that condition. Participants were asked to perform a complex gymnastic routine (maximum vertical jump) with swinging the arms forwards and upwards, pulling the knees up to the chest while grabbing the shins followed by a half-squat landing with arms extended sidewards. During the acquisition phase, all the participants completed a total of 150 trials, with 15 trials completed in three blocks during each of the ten practice sessions. In the present study, we used expert ratings based on the FIG-COP to evaluate movement quality. For each trial, three gymnastic judges assessed the performance. To assess the differences between the five groups, a repeated measures ANOVA was conducted on the last factor for retention and transfer (Group x Test) and practice (Group x Practice). Partial eta squared (ηp2) effect sizes were calculated for multiple comparisons and Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated for pairwise comparisons. Post-hoc Fisher’s LSD test was used for pairwise comparison. No significant Group x Test interaction or Group main effect was found, indicating that no group performed better than another in retention immediate, delayed and transfer tests. For each group, a significant improvement compared to baseline was observed in the retention and transfer tests (d &gt; 0.8). The most important finding from the current study was that groups under self-controlled and experimenter-controlled frequency of model observing appeared similarly effective in learning a complex gymnastic routine. No significant differences were observed between the five groups in retention and transfer tests.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Baton exchange effectiveness and speed are essential to performance in sprint relay races, often deciding team victory. An effective baton exchange requires athletes to complete it while at full speed, both by the incoming and the outgoing athlete. Our research aimed to determine the relationship between baton exchange time and the point in the exchange zone where the handoff is completed. The study was carried out among Polish national team sprinters (n=27), competing in the 4x100 m relays. We analyzed 168 men’s and 62 women’s baton exchanges across the annual training cycle. In a 30-meter track segment corresponding to the baton exchange zone, we measured the time the baton spent in this segment (exchange time, ET), using the Brower Timing Systems (TC-System, USA), and the exact point of the baton handoff in this zone (handoff point, HP). To show the relationship between ET and HP, we performed a linear regression analysis. We have found that the further the HP the shorter the ET. This dependence is more evident in women (r=-0.66, r2=0.44 for 1st and 3rd exchanges, and r=-0.72, r2=0.52 for 2nd exchange; both P&lt;0.001) than in men (r=-0.45, r2=0.20 and r=-0.68, r2=0.46; both P&lt;0.001, respectively). The results suggest that the further the baton exchange takes place in the exchange zone (longer HP distance) the more effective the exchange (shorter ET). However, the coefficient of determination ranging (r2=0.20-0.52) indicates that HP explains at most 50% of the ET, and other factors should be taken into account. Nonetheless, the measuring technique proposed by us can provide coaches with additional data on baton exchange effectiveness and athletes' speed abilities.</jats:p>

<jats:p>There is a view that playing sports is positively related to pupils' academic achievement. Results of studies worldwide indicate this correlation, while few studies have been done in Bosnia and Herzegovina on this problem. The current study aims to expand on findings from previous studies by examining associations between (1) mode: active vs. recreational); (2) type: individual vs. team based and (3) a particular kind of sports and academic achievement particularly math achievement among middle school children. Population involves middle school pupils in two urban areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina and research sample consists of 1036 female and 1055 male pupils wanting to take part in study voluntarily. Kruskal-Wallis and Wilcoxon test were conduced to obtain results. Results show that middle school pupils who are actively involved in sports have better overall midterm academic success as well as better mathematics achievement compared to those who are involved in sports recreationally or not at all (p &lt; 0.001). On the other hand, differences do not occur between pupils who are engaged in team or individual sports. Also, pupils who practice football were found to have lower school performance compared to pupils who practice some of the other sports.</jats:p>