Catálogo de publicaciones - libros

This article presents the study of the famous Scythian monument Arzhan-2 discovered in Central Asia, Tuva Republic, in 2001. The main focus is the analyses of the different archaeological materials including typology, analogy, burial tradition etc to determine the chronological place of this monument in the nomadic world. The analyses of the artifacts is primarily concerned with the horse harness and its comparison with the materials from other monuments located in this region and the neighbouring territories. It is shown that in spite of the originality of the archaeological materials, they reflect the local culture and the earlier Scythian tradition. Thus the Arzhan-2 monument can be associated with the so-called aldy-bel culture dated to the 7-6 centuries BC.

This paper is devoted to some problems of correlation between archaeological and radiocarbon dates in Scythian archaeology. Modern radiocarbon dates which are used to support an independent non-archaeological chronological system, in some cases provide evidence to narrow existing archaeological dates or show a good agreement with archaeological dates, and in other cases do not contradict them. The findings of chronological studies are clearer now: the accepted archaeological dates of early Scythian monuments (9-6 centuries BC) are found as the later limits of their calibrated calendar age (C ), whereas archaeological dates of classical antiquities (5-4 centuries BC) are found in the earlier parts of their calibrated age range. For example, the “royal” Alexandropol barrow which was dated by archaeologists to the period 330-300 BC., has radiocarbon dates in the interval 2300-2080 BP, which corresponds to the 4-1 century cal. BC.

This article is devoted to the periodic migrations of Asian nomads (Saka - Scythians, Hsiung-nu - Huns, Turks and Mongols), which can be traced from the beginning of the first millennium BC up to the 13th century AD according to archaeological and written sources. This correlates with periods of increasing humidity in the steppes during ancient times. While it is difficult to define the reasons for these migrations, it is possible, that climatic changes may have promoted them.

The article is devoted to the consideration of the initial stage of history of the Cimmerians, who were the first historically known nomadic people in Eastern Europe. The early 1 millennium B.C. was characterized by the formative development of nomad pastoralism throughout the Eurasian steppes. During this time specialised nomadic economies developed based on the horse, so that most of the steppe regions were occupied by groups of nomads with their mobile way of life.

It is proposed that the appearance of the first nomadic horse-riding groups on the historical arena coincided with considerable changes of the environment in the Final Bronze Age. Worsening of climatic conditions had a negative effect on the Pontic steppes archaeological cultures with a mixed pastoral-agricultural economy. Steppe populations adjusted to the new conditions by adopting a new nomadic way of life as well as by developing new lands. The migrations of nomadic tribes from the steppe zone were not single events but rather a continuous process. Depopulation of the Pontic steppes was accompanied by intensive cultural and economic development of other territories, for example, the area north of the Caucasus Mountains, the Krim Peninsula, the regions of the middle Dnieper and also the Great Hungarian Plain. These new centers were located in areas of wetter climate and their situations allowed them to play an important role. Cimmerians played a vital part in the transmission of horse riding and in the development of a new bridle technique. Both innovations were to have a major impact on European history.

Interpretation of Radiocarbon dates can be rather complex. For example, variations in the natural C content cause the C clock rate to vary throughout time, causing the need for calibration of the C timescale. For the Scythian epoch, there is a problematic range in the C calibration curve. Radiocarbon dates of around 2450 BP always calibrate to ca. 800-400 BC, no matter the measurement precision.

In order to establish reliable chronologies, both state-of-the-art scientific and archaeological dating methods need to be employed. This includes high precision C dating and AMS, enabling dating of small samples such as from museum collections or other precious materials.

This article is devoted to the chronology of the occupation of the Southern steppe regions of Eurasia during the Holocene based on radiocarbon data. The steppe regions of the European and Asian steppe are compared. The main attention is given to the southern Siberia and Central Asia regions. These areas are typical inner regions not influenced by the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. These locations and their environment impact on the development of ancient populations. On the contrary, for the European steppe the occupation of these regions in the Holocene began only in the Eneolithic epoch when the first ancient nomads penetrated from other territories and the more intensive occupation was seen during the Scythian time. Such phenomenon can be connected to the environmental changes which made the territories very attractive for a nomadic economy. The character of the calibration curve confirms the abruptness of the environment changes about 4600 BP and 2600 BP.

New C dates from the Minusinsk basin are presented. These dates have been calibrated together with earlier results. Different calibration methods have been used to study the chronology of the cultural developments in this region. Durations and timing of cultural developments in the Minusinsk basin from the Bronze Age to Scythian time are discussed.

The study is focused on the development of Eneolothic cultures on the background of environmental changes. Analyses of the geomorphologic location of the Yamnaya, Early Catacomb, North-Caucasus and Predkavkazskaya Catacomb cultures’ kurgans; the topography of burial grounds; climatic characteristics of 3,000 BC; C data; analyses of planigraphy of burial grounds and seasonality of graves enable us to develop a model of migration of pastoral culture populations within the study area, i.e. Kumo-Manich depression — the South Ergenui hills.

Gradually the climate deteriorated starting from 2,600-2,500 BC. Newcomers representing different cultures arrived from the South and maybe from the South-West. At first the population of the North Caucasus and Early Catacomb cultures exploited river valleys and watershed areas only during summer. Such a situation could have developed not only due to climatic changes but also thanks to consent of the Yamnaya culture bearers that were the first to use these areas. Appearance of “mixed” (multiritual) graves, multiritual funeral goods found in the graves of both autochthonous populations and newcomers allow us to suppose that this coexistence could be quite peaceful.

High-resolution radiocarbon dating of tree ring sequences provides a tool to overcome complications of the radiocarbon calibration curve. The time (2500 BP) when the Pazyryk culture thrived in the steppes of Siberia coincides with wiggles on the radiocarbon calibration curve. Results of radiocarbon dating of tree logs from the Pazyryk 2 and Ulandryk 4 tombs allow wiggle matching to the calibration curve and more precise dating of the time the kurgans were constructed. The ages of 300 and 311 BC for Pazyryk 2 and Ulandryk 4, respectively, support historical dating of the finds. Our chronology provides a piece in the puzzle of the expansion and the extension of the Scythian like cultures that dominated the steppes between 800-200 BC.

This paper considers modelling the C calibration curve using a variety of mathematical approaches. The main focus was the period of the 1 millennium BC which is characterized by fluctuations of the C concentrations in the atmosphere. This results in a non-linear relationship between the radiocarbon age and calendar age. The present study focuses on the influence of the calibration curve on statistical inference concerning time intervals of archaeological cultures and phases. The result shows that for the first millennium BC the time intervals estimated on the basis of calibrated radiocarbon dates differ from the real intervals on the calendar timescale.