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Cephalopods are valuable seafood for human consumption, and some of them are good candidates for aquaculture. In addition, they have evolved many characteristic features that make them interesting models for research. The recent inclusion of cephalopods in the Directive 2010/EU regulates the use of animals for scientific purposes and obliges cephalopod researchers to promote the best health and welfare practices during aquarium maintenance or aquaculture procedures. The identification of diseases of cephalopods, and the pathogens that cause them, is consequently of major interest to improve cephalopod welfare and husbandry. This work has been designed as a short, easy to follow ‘handbook,’ with the aim of presenting fundamental aspects of the anatomical and histological structures as well as the identification of different pathogens, the resulting histopathology, and the diagnosis of diseases in cephalopods. We hope it will provide a useful contribution that will also encourage marine pathologists, parasitologists, veterinarians and those involved in fishery sanitary assessment, aquarium maintenance, and aquaculture practice to increase our knowledge about the pathology of cephalopods further.

We witness the expansion of cephalopod fisheries and their growing importance in the world’s fisheries production. Despite this, only 4 of the 28 taxonomic families are commercially exploited. The rational exploitation of resources could provide large quantities of high-quality cephalopods and would only require further development in harvesting techniques. The intrinsic nutritional value of the cephalopods and the progress of extraction and processing technologies would allow for an expansion of the range of products attractive to consumers, including current non-commercial species. This atlas presents a review of general pathology in octopus, cuttlefish, and squid from different regions of the world. This topic is closely linked to food safety concerns, and it can also be considered a tool for assessing the state of populations. This review provides a resource for teaching and guidance in universities, research centers, public and private laboratories, processing and transformation companies, as well as for administrations in their legislative processes.

Understanding the relationship between form and function of living beings is an intimidating challenge. The recognition and interpretation of physiological and pathological processes require a previous knowledge of regular morphology and anatomy of the external and internal structures and organs of any living creature. Cephalopods span an awesome range of shapes and scales, and the variations between species are crucial for correct interpretations. This chapter covers the gross morphological and anatomical main characteristics of different cephalopod species, as well as necropsy protocols and methods of euthanasia. This knowledge is decisive to a suitable understanding of the modifications caused by injury, infection, or disease, especially for those people who are not familiar with these remarkable marine molluscs.

The knowledge of the organization of normal tissues and the changes occurring during physiological or pathological processes is basic to interpret the relationship between structure and function. There are numerous microscopic studies focused on different cephalopod organs that are based on the use of high-resolution methods as the transmission electron microscopy. However, there is no comprehensive basic histological guide to the different tissues in common species of cephalopods. To fill this gap, we present a careful description of the normal histological organization of cephalopods. Through 35 plates including 225 photomicrographs and the accompanying text descriptions, this chapter covers the body systems of three common species of European coleoid cephalopods, the cuttlefish (), the squid () and the octopus (). The histology of the three species is presented in parallel, emphasizing those significant between-species differences. Sections used for study and photomicrographs were mostly stained with hematoxylin–eosin (H&E), a standard light microscopy method widely accessible for most laboratories of histology and pathology. Some sections of octopus were stained the Masson’s trichrome or the periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) methods.

Cephalopods have a different development to other molluscs and hatch as modified miniature adults called larvae, juveniles or, in some octopuses, paralarvae. The terminology used to describe young cephalopods is varied. In and other members of Octopoda and Teuthida (squids), hatchlings are called paralarvae. They are planktonic stages that swim actively and prey on live planktonic organisms while undergoing morphological changes mainly due to the fast growth of the arms relative to the mantle. and other members of the Sepioidea are called hatchlings until they are a week old. All of the specimens studied in this chapter are newly hatched. For a better understanding of the correct terminology, we will refer to the cuttlefish and squid specimens as juveniles and to the specimens as paralarvae. In this chapter, we provide a detailed view of the anatomy of premature hatchlings of the squid () and the cuttlefish () and of paralarvae of We organize this into sections of the functional “systems” (e.g. respiratory system, excretory system).

This chapter describes infections of cephalopods by both the Labyrinthulomycetes (formerly fungi, now protists) and organisms still classified as fungi, with information on how to diagnose them. Both types of infection are rare, but those by Labyrinthulomycetes in captive cephalopod populations can increase with time and may last for three or more years, raising concerns about such ubiquitous organisms for cephalopod culture.

This chapter compiles the information available to date regarding virus affecting different species of cephalopods. A clear evidence of a virus-related disease on cephalopods was not stablished yet. However, the first description of a virus-like in was observed in nodular tumors that finally caused the death of the animal. It is noteworthy that not too much effort has been focused on this area to date. However, the incidence of viruses in cephalopods might be further investigated since the attention on these species as an alternative to the aquaculture sector is increasing rapidly over last years and huge efforts are being made to stablish new cultures.

Bacterial pathogens contribute to obtain an unsuccessful production of cephalopods. An updated overview of the knowledge of these pathogens must be a valuable tool to improve their aquarium maintenance and aquaculture. The present work provides a description of the main bacterial pathogens associated with larval stages of cultured and juvenile and adults of several cephalopods. species, reported with ability to cause vibriosis in aquaculture, are the main bacteria associated with skin lesions in adults. Different species of and among others, have also been detected. Furthermore, gram-positive bacteria such as have been also described. Among them, and have also been isolated from sterile organs or fluids of animals and their potential as invaders proved. However, only or has the ability to cause lesions, and, in addition, the last one is proved as the causative agent of death in octopuses. Other organs such as eyes of squids are also colonized by species or sp., and recently and have been reported associated with a retrobulbar lesion in octopus. Rickettsial-like organisms (RLO) are also detected in the gills of the octopus, having a detrimental effect on the respiratory gaseous exchange of the animals. Cultures of octopus paralarvae show a genetically diverse community comparable to those reported previously from other marine hatcheries. Bacteria included in the Splendidus clade is the dominant group in all conditions, except in one of them, where or are the main detected groups. Furthermore, or have also been identified. All this shows that pathogenic bacteria are frequent microorganisms associated with aquarium maintenance and culture of cephalopods, and special attention on maintaining a well-balanced community of microorganisms should be applied.

Coccidia of the genus is the most widely distributed coccidian in cephalopods. Damages caused to the hosts include mechanical (tissue injury), biochemical (malfunction of digestive enzymes), and molecular (affects cellular immune response) effects. However, coccidiosis is not a fatal disease to the cephalopod host; it severely weakens its innate immunity making it vulnerable to secondary infections. Therefore, coccidia of the genus are considered the most dangerous parasite for cephalopods affecting wild species of notable economic importance for fishery and aquaculture activity. The pathology caused by coccidiosis to the most important European cephalopod species is the subject of the present chapter.

Ciliates are one of the most common protistan parasites in cephalopods. In this chapter, we have undertaken to describe the biology and diversity of parasitic ciliates in European cephalopods and give diagnosis elements to identify the known species. We briefly summarize available data on the ciliates parasitizing the gills and skin of European cephalodops (Ancistrocomidae) and the endoparasitic forms observed in the digestive tract and renal appendages (Opalinopsidae). Ancistrocomidae ectoparasites have been observed in Opalinosidae family harbours two parasitic genera: and . Species diversity of these two genera seems to be underestimated in Europe.