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As explained in the foreword, this volume of Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology is devoted to an assessment of the ecological risks posed by chlorpyrifos (O,O-diethyl O-(3,5,6-trichloro-2- pyridinyl) phosphorothioate; CAS No. 2921-88-2; CPY) as used in the United States (U.S.). CPY is a widely used organophosphorus insecticide that is available in a granular formulation for treatment in soil, or several flowable formulations that can be applied to foliage, soil, or dormant trees. CPY can be applied by use of aerial spraying, chemigation, ground boom or air-blast sprayers, tractor-drawn spreaders, or hand-held equipment.

The physical and chemical properties of chlorpyrifos (-diethyl -3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyl phosphorothioate, CPY; CAS No. 2921-88-2) are the primary determinants that govern fate (movement, adsorption, degradation, and catabolism) in the environment and in biota. The uses of chlorpyrifos in locations of interest, such as the United States in the case of this paper, are the primary determinants of the entry of chlorpyrifos into the environment and its subsequent fate in the regions of use and beyond. The uses and manner of use are addressed in this paper.

The fate and movement of the organophosphorus insecticide chlorpyrifos (CPY; CAS No. 2921-88-2) and its principal transformation product of interest, chlorpyrifos-oxon (CPYO; CAS No. 5598-15-2), are primary determinants of exposures to them by animals in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Dynamics of the movement of CPY and CPYO are determined by the interactions between chemical and physical properties and environmental conditions. Together, these properties provide the basis for developing and refining models of exposure for assessing risks. An extensive review of the environmental fate of CPY was published in 1993. The following sections build on this review, with updates exploiting relevant data from new studies and other reviews in the literature as these pertain to the assessment of risks in the ecosystem. This report addresses processes that affect fates of CPY and CPYO in various compartments of the environment and how these affect exposures of ecological receptors as discussed in other companion papers. This report serves as an update on the environmental dynamics and potential exposures of CPY that were presented previously and includes additional information on the environmental chemodynamics of CPY that have become available subsequent to those earlier publications. There have been and continue to be extensive studies on the presence of CPY and CPYO in environmental media near to and remote from sites of application. Many are prompted by concerns that these substances may have effects on distant sensitive organisms, such as amphibians and in remote food webs as have occurred with organo-chlorine pesticides.

Chlorpyrifos (O,O-diethyl O-(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyl) phosphorothioate) is an organophosphorus insecticide that has been detected in surface waters of the United States (CDPR 2012a; Martin et al. 2011; NCWQR 2012; WDOE 2012). The potential for chlorpyrifos (CPY) to occur in surface water is governed by complex interactions of factors related to application, agronomic practices, climatological conditions during and after application, soil pedology and chemistry, hydrologic responses of drainage systems, and its physicochemical properties that affect mobility and persistence under those environmental settings. These conditions vary among patterns of use such as the crop to which it is applied within the different regions of the country that have different soil types and climates. CPY use and registrations have changed over time as a result of market forces and product stewardship, including the ban of retail use and the implementation of other label changes for environmental stewardship that was implemented in 2001. The objective of this study was to characterize likely exposures of aquatic organisms to CPY in the U.S. by evaluating patterns of use, environmental chemistry, available monitoring data, and via simulation modeling. The results of the data analyses and simulation modeling are a key component of the CPY risk assessment described in a companion paper.

Effects of chlorpyrifos (CPY) in aquatic ecosystems are dependent on duration and magnitude of exposure and toxicity to individual species. This paper is focused on potential effects of CPY on aquatic organisms and ecosystems based on properties and current uses of CPY and probabilities of exposure as determined by measurement in monitoring programs and predictions of simulation models. Exposures, toxicity, and risks to birds, other terrestrial wildlife, and pollinators are assessed in two additional companion papers. This paper follows the framework for ecotoxicological risk assessment (ERA) developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA 1992, 1998, 2004), and builds on a previous assessment of risks posed by CPY in surface waters of North America.

Chlorpyrifos (O,O-diethyl O-(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyl) phosphorothioate; CPY) is a widely used, organophosphorus insecticide that was first registered in the United States in 1965. It is available in flowable and granular formulations under the trademark Lorsban and is registered in many countries for control of pests in soil or on foliage. Birds are potentially at risk following application of CPY because: (1) they forage in areas that could be treated with the pesticide, and (2) CPY has been shown to be toxic to birds under laboratory conditions when they were exposed to ecologically relevant concentrations in the diet. Here we present a refined assessment of risk to birds from application of granular or flowable formulations of CPY to crops in the United States at rates and frequencies of use approved on the current product labels. This assessment focused on bird species that are known to frequently forage in crop fields treated with CPY.

Pollinators are crucial species of almost all natural and artificial terrestrial ecosystems (Garibaldi et al. 2013; NAS 2007). While most of the world’s food supply, including important crops such as cereals, are mainly wind pollinated, more than three-quarters of angiosperms rely on animals for pollination and approximately 75 % of the leading global fruit-, vegetable-, and seed-crops depend at least partially on animal pollination. Most animal pollination is done by insects, particularly bees. In the United States (US) and Canada, the production of crops that require or benefit from pollination by insects is large. It is estimated that the pollination services of the European honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Aide), are worth over $15 billion annually to US agriculture, and the value of non-Apis pollinators to production of crops is estimated to be over $11 billion. In addition to helping ensure a diverse supply of food for humans, pollination plays a critical role in providing the basis for essential ecosystem productivity and services