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The purpose of this short review is to summarize the available evidence from observational studies and rodent models for an association between maternal protein intake, birth weight, pre- and post-weaning body mass gain and adult body fatness in the offspring.

Effective strategies for primary prevention are urgently needed to combat the rapidly increasing prevalence of childhood obesity. Evidence accumulates that early nutrition programmes later obesity risk. Breast feeding reduces the odds ratio for obesity at school age, adjusted for biological and sociodemographic confounding variables, by some 20–25 %. We propose that the protective effect of breast feeding is related in part by the induction of a lower weight gain in infancy, which is related to differences in substrate intake. Protein intake per kg bodyweight is some 55–80 % higher in formula fed than in breast fed infants. We hypothesize that high early protein intakes in excess of metabolic requirements enhance weight gain in infancy and increase later obesity risk (the “early protein hypothesis”). The European Childhood Obesity Programme tests this hypothesis in a randomized double blind intervention trial in 1150 infants in five European centres. Infants that are not breast fed are randomized to formulae with higher or lower protein content and followed up to school age. If an effect of infant feeding habits on later obesity risk should be established, there is great potential for effective preventive intervention with a significant potential health benefit for the child and adult population.

It is debatable whether supplementation of infant formula with LCPUFA has an effect on infant growth and development. Up till now, there is little evidence of a negative effect on infant growth. A review of randomized controlled trials in term infants revealed that LCPUFA, in particularly supplementation with ≥ 0.30% DHA, seems to have a beneficial effect on neurodevelopmental outcome up to 4 months of age. The studies could not demonstrate a consistent positive effect beyond that age. However, in the majority of studies neurodevelopmental outcome was assessed between 6 to 24 months, i.e. at an age where there is a ‘latency’ in the expression of minor neurological dysfunction. Thus it is possible that LCPUFA might have a long lasting beneficial effect on neurodevelopmental outcome at school-age and beyond. This hypothesis urgently needs testing.

By using different experimental designs in the rat we have been able to answer several unanswered questions on the short- and long-term effects of alterations of lipid metabolism during the perinatal stage. The first was to demonstrate the importance of maternal body fat accumulation during the first half of pregnancy, since undernutrition in this critical period when fetal growth is slow, impedes fat depot accumulation and not only restrains intrauterine development but has long-term consequences, as shown by an impaired glucose tolerance when adults. Secondly, undernutrition during suckling has major long-term effect of decreasing body weight, even though food intake is kept normal from the weaning period. Our findings also show that a diet rich in n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation has adverse effects on offspring development, but cross fostered experiments showed that this effect was a consequence of the intake of these fatty acids during the lactation period rather than during pregnancy. Pups from dams that were fed a fish oil-rich diet during pregnancy and lactation were found to have altered glucose/insulin relationship at the age of 10 weeks. Since a n-3 fatty acid-rich diet decreases milk yield during lactation, additional experiments were carried out to determine whether decreased food intake or altered dietary fatty acid composition, or both, were responsible for the long-term effects on the glucose/insulin axis.

Results show that the decreased food intake caused by a n-3 fatty acid-rich diet rather than the change in milk composition during suckling was responsible for the reduced pancreatic glucose responsiveness to insulin release at 16 weeks of age.

In conclusion, present findings indicate that impaired maternal fat accumulation during early pregnancy and food intake during lactation, rather than a difference in dietary fatty acid composition, have major effects on postnatal development and affect glucose/insulin relationships in adult rats.

In this placebo controlled, randomised, double blind trial, pregnant women received from the 20 week of gestation onwards either 500 mg docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 400 mg 5-methyl-tetra-hydro-folate (5-MTHF), or placebo, or a combination of 500 mg DHA and 400 mg 5-MTHF. The dietary supplements were well tolerated; the dropout rates did not differ significantly in the active arms of the study (10% to 19%) from that seen in the placebo group (13%). DHA supplementation resulted in significant enhancement of the contribution of DHA to maternal, placental and venous cord blood lipids.

Research in Europe needs multidisciplinary approaches and young researchers should get the opportunity to become familiar with new perspectives and future research topics. The workshop focused on some particular topics of research:

This meeting discussed the regulation, marketing and communication needs of these products from a consumer point of view. It was agreed, that clear and consistent messages are needed from health professionals, public authorities, industry and also the media. There is also a need to better understand the context in which choices of products are made. Research into these topics is reviewed in this paper, but it is obvious that more research into consumer and health professional behaviour is needed. This will allow best practices for communication of the use of dietetic foods for the important consumer group of lactating mothers and young parents.

Co-operation between SMEs and Academia can be a win-win situation when each partner understands the constraints of the other. SMEs are often leaders in innovation; therefore more ready to share interest in research. They are flexible and dynamic. They need a short feed-back to sustain their co-operation. Academia is often more long-term oriented and more question- than answer-oriented. A code of conduct can ease the relationship because it can anticipate the potential problems.

This paper examines three ethical areas arising from perinatal nutrition research: the first is concerned with properly informed consent in a context of interventionist research; the second with the role of research ethics committees and the third with the relationship between research and public policy

Dissemination of results is a contractual obligation of participation in research initiatives supported under the European Union’s Framework Six Programme. The European Commission’s Directorate-General for Research is heavily involved in communicating the results of EU-funded research to the media and the general public. In any research project it is important to start thinking about dissemination and exploitation right at the beginning. How can this be possible when the project has not yet yielded any results? Examples from two ongoing EU supported projects are shared and discussed.