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<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Birds have a very different pineal gland structure morphologically and cytologically. The structure of the organ shows significant changes during the incubation periods. This study, which follows the embryological development of the pineal gland and makes histomorphometric measurements of the cellular elements that make up the gland parenchyma, is a current reference for studies in these areas. These brains were taken from 24 Babcock White Leghorn chick embryos on the 10th, 13th, 16th and 21st days of incubation. At 10th embryonic day, the pineal recess was in the structure of an elongated pineal canal. Solid rosette‐shaped cell clusters were transforming into round vesicles with a small lumen. These vesicles had developed into larger, oval‐shaped follicles with a well‐defined central lumen. On 13th day, it was observed that the number and development of follicles increased considerably. The pineal gland showed a follicular‐solid structure in 16th day embryos. While the mean follicle diameter was determined as 123.46 ± 13.28 μm on the 10th embryonic day, the highest value was measured as 187.62 ± 7.37 μm on the hatching day (<jats:italic>p</jats:italic> &lt; 0.05). While the mean follicle area had the lowest value in the 10th day embryos, it was determined that this value gradually increased compared to the advancing embryonic days (<jats:italic>p</jats:italic> &lt; 0.05). As conclusion, it is thought that this study provides new data to the literature about pineal gland development by monitoring the histological and histomorphometric developments of chick pineal gland in different incubation periods.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>The study covers British Shorthair cats, which is a popular domestic cat breed in our country and defined as ‘brachycephalic’ in terms of skull structure. Article focuses on the pelvis and femur region of cats which gynaecological and orthopaedic diseases of this cat breed, which are frequently encountered in clinical practice, is found to be important. It is aimed to reveal the shape differences between male and female individuals using geometric morphometric method. X‐ray images were used to examine the pelvis and femurs of cats via geometric method. Radiological images were obtained from a total of 40 British Shorthair cats (20 females and 20 males) in two positions, ventro‐dorsal (VD) and latero‐lateral (LL), and shape differences between the sexes were examined. As result, it is seen that the measurement points taken from the males are more outward and have sharper angles than the females. Study also shows pelvis is a better choice than femur when it comes to sex discrimination. Although traditional morphometric methods are more useful in clinical practice, it is thought that is important to support or re‐evaluate the data with the geometric morphometric method in academic field for a further approach.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>There are few scientific reports on the histology of the phallus of ratite birds. The aim of this study was to conduct a histochemical analysis to determine the distribution of smooth muscle cells and the volumetric density (Vv) of the fibres of the elastic system in the ostrich phallus. Adult ostriches, 14 months old, were used. The phalluses were fixed in Bouin's solution and then transferred to a buffered formalin solution. They were then processed using standard histological stains for paraffin and slices were obtained. The following techniques were performed: HE, Picrosirius red, Alcian Blue at pH 1.0 and 2.5. The Periodic acid‐Schiff reagent and Weigert's Resorcin‐Fuchsin with previous oxidation were performed. The M42 test system was used to quantify the elastic system fibres. For immunohistochemical analysis, an anti alpha smooth muscle actin monoclonal antibody was used. The surface of the phallus is covered by a non‐keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, which becomes stratified cylindrical in the region of the spermatic sulcus. No glands associated with the connective tissue were observed. The Vv of the elastic system fibres was 4.75%. Smooth muscle cells were visualized only in the walls of blood vessels through immunostaining, with an absence in the lymphatic sinuses. Despite similarities with other birds, such as the presence of a fibrous external axis, a lymphatic core, and a spermatic groove, the ostrich phallus shows marked differences, including the absence of an elastic core, a non‐keratinized lining epithelium, and the absence of glands throughout its extension.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>In this investigation the morphological and morphometrical features of the optic tectum in post‐hatch broiler chicken were studied macroscopically and microscopically. The present study was conducted on 70 day old broiler chicks which were reared up to 42 days. The whole experimental period of study was divided into seven groups (from group I to VII) at weekly interval (days 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42). The optic lobes were paired and spherical to oval eminences located on the ventro‐lateral part of the midbrain in broiler chicken. There was significant increase in length and width of the optic lobes with the advancement of age. Histological analysis of optic tectum shows six basic layers from the external surface to internal one towards the optic ventricle. Different layers of optic tectum were identified as stratum opticum, stratum griseum superficial, stratum griseum central, stratum album central, stratum griseum periventriculare and stratum fibrosum periventriculare with several types of neurons. Among all six layers of the optic tectum the stratum griseum superficial layer showed very high degree of secondry differentiation and evolved into nine sub‐ layers in all age groups of broiler chickens. Three main cell types had been identified that is, small to medium sized stellate shaped neuron, pyramidal neuron and fusiform neuron, beside these multipolar neuron were also evident. The thickness of all layers of optic tectum significantly increases with the advancement of age of the birds. The optic ventricle was lined with a layer of cuboidal ependymal cells.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>It is important to know the morphometry of the auditory ossicles for middle ear surgical applications. The present study aims to investigate the morphometric measurements of sheep auditory ossicles and the relationship between these ossicles. In this study, 100 malleus, incus and stapes of 50 Akkaraman sheep were examined using at trinocular stereo microscope and a total of 19 morphometric measurements were taken. The mean values of the morphometric measurements were obtained, and correlation analysis was performed between each part of each auditory ossicle. Similarities were found between the measurements of the lengths of the malleus, manubrium mallei and incus, and the width of the base of the stapes with morphometric measurements in human auditory ossicles. A significant positive correlation was found between the length of the malleus with the length of the manubrium mallei, between the length of the incus with the lengths of the long crus and corpus incudis, between the length of the stapes with the lengths of the rostral crus, caudal crus, caput stapedis, and the length and width of the intercrural foramen. Due to the anatomic similarities between sheep and human auditory ossicles, it was concluded that the auditory ossicles of sheep are suitable for use in the training of human ear surgery applications.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>The African straw‐coloured fruit Bat, <jats:italic>Eidolon helvum</jats:italic>, is a Yinpterochiroptera bat that is of public health and ecological importance. This study investigated the light microscopic morphology, morphometry and histochemistry of the skin and its glands across the cheek, withers, croup, ventral abdomen, perianal region, wing membrane, intercrural membrane and foot pad of the species. Sweat glands were absent and hypodermis was observed only in the withers, croup and ventral abdomen. The croup had the highest density of hair follicles while the perianal region had the highest density of sebaceous gland acini. The thicknesses of the dermis and epidermis were significantly high in the withers and foot pad respectively. Hair follicles and sebaceous glands were absent in the wing membrane. The sebaceous glands had melanin pigmentation at the periphery and stained positive to Alcian Blue‐periodic acid Schiff at the withers and ventral abdomen. Epidermal and dermal thicknesses reported in this study were generally higher than those of Yangochiroptera bats and the presence of sebaceous glands and hair follicles in the wing membrane were variable in different bat species. This study has provided baseline information on the light microscopic morphology and morphometry of the skin and its glands across the various body regions in the African straw‐coloured fruit bat. This information would be helpful in the understanding, handling, skin disease treatment and management of the bat in captivity for biomedical research purposes.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>The present study was conducted to localize the immunoexpression of VEGF‐A (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) and von Willebrand factor (vWF) in corpora lutea of healthy buffaloes (24) collected from local slaughterhouses. CL collected were categorized into early (stage I, 1–5 days, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 6), mid (stage II, 6–11 days, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 6), late luteal phase (stage III, 12 to 16 days, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 6) and regressing phase (stage IV, 17 to 20 days, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 6). The percent positive immunostaining for VEGF‐A was significantly (<jats:italic>p</jats:italic> &lt; 0.05) higher in mid‐luteal phase than the other three stages of CL. However, it was higher in early luteal phase as well indicated intense angiogenesis in both early and mid‐luteal phases. The number of capillary endothelium expressing vWF was significantly (<jats:italic>p</jats:italic> &lt; 0.05) highest in mid‐luteal phase among all the phases. However, in late luteal phase, the percent area positive for VEGF‐A immunostaining was reduced but it was significantly (<jats:italic>p</jats:italic> &lt; 0.05) higher than corpus albicans phase. Thus, in regressing phase or corpus albicans, it was lowest and reduced considerably. However, in late luteal phase, the number of capillaries with vWF immunoexpression reduced significantly (<jats:italic>p</jats:italic> &lt; 0.05) but it was lowest in corpus albicans phase. Therefore, the immunotaining pattern for VEGF‐A and vWF concluded that there was a spositive linear correlation between the two, that is, as the VEGF‐A expression was increased, the number of vWF positive capillaries also increased and vice versa. The VEGF‐A expressed by the luteal parenchyma in different stages of development and regression of corpus luteum was thus observed to be involved in promoting the angiogenesis and luteal cell proliferation as supported by vWF expressed by endothelium of proliferating capillaries in buffalo corpus luteum throughout the estrous cycle.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>The bone texture of <jats:italic>Rhea americana</jats:italic> was evaluated through the examination of a postnatal ontogenetic series. The hind limb bone surfaces of specimens of one, three and five months old, and adults were compared to characterize each stage according to the morphological features generated by their differential ossification. The results suggest a similar process of tissue maturation concerning neognathous birds, although with some differences. A spongy or striated surface with abundant pores in the femur and longitudinal grooves in the tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus characterizes chicks. Vascularity decreases, and the bone texture gradually changes acquiring a more homogeneous surface, to eventually reach the smooth appearance of adult bones. The establishment of particular textures corresponding to different bones and ontogenetic stages permits the accurate interpretation of remains in ecological, archaeological and paleontological contexts in which bones are fragmented and/or incomplete.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Studies on brain anatomy can clarify specific evolutionary and behavioural aspects of wild animals. The rich diversity in a broad range of habitats makes carnivorans especially eligible for studying the relations between the brain form and behaviour, cognitive, sensorial and motor traits. This study compared the brain's contour and total and segmented brain volumetry in three species of neotropical carnivorans. CT images of 17 skulls of three species were acquired: <jats:italic>Conepatus chinga</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 6), <jats:italic>Galictis cuja</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 6) and <jats:italic>Lontra longicaudis</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 5). Three‐dimensional endocasts allowed for estimating the brain's total and segmented volumes (olfactory bulb, rostral cerebrum, caudal cerebrum and cerebellum/brain stem). The average volume percentage of the segments was compared interspecifically and intraspecifically between the sexes. The otter has a notably more complex gyrification, typical for semiaquatic carnivorans. Proportionally, the olfactory bulb was significantly larger in hog‐nosed skunks, possibly due to a better sense of smell for capturing insects. The proportional volumes of the rostral cerebrum, caudal cerebrum and cerebellum/brain stem segments did not differ between these species. Social behaviour traits and tactile, motor and balance skills were probably not sufficiently distinct to reflect differences in the brain segments analysed in these three species.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>This study aimed to describe sonographic features of the liver, gallbladder and hepatic histogram from grey‐scale ultrasound in three species of healthy non‐venomous snakes. Twenty‐eight adult snakes were enrolled in the study, including 10 common boas (<jats:italic>Boa constrictor</jats:italic>), eight black‐tailed pythons (<jats:italic>Python molurus</jats:italic>) and 10 rainbow boas (<jats:italic>Epicrates crassus</jats:italic>). The snakes fasted for 30 days and were manually restrained while conscious. For <jats:italic>B. constrictor</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>P. molurus</jats:italic> the liver and gallbladder were best visualized in ventral recumbency, and <jats:italic>E. crassus</jats:italic> in dorsal recumbency. A single elongated hepatic lobe was identified in all snakes. The gallbladder was positioned caudal and separated from the liver, with an oval shape and homogeneous anechoic content in the lumen, and thin and regular walls. A region of interest by pixel number was chosen for the liver, fat bodies, left kidney, and splenopancreas. The mean grey level (G) of the organs had significant differences within each species. Standard deviation of grey levels (S<jats:sub>G</jats:sub>) had significant differences within <jats:italic>B. constrictor</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>E. crassus. P. molurus</jats:italic> had no significant difference among organs. The comparison among snakes showed that <jats:italic>E. crassus</jats:italic> had G of liver and splenopancreas lower than <jats:italic>B. constrictor</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>P. molurus.</jats:italic> The S<jats:sub>G</jats:sub> of the liver in <jats:italic>E. crassus</jats:italic> was lowest compared to <jats:italic>B. constrictor</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>P. molurus. P. molurus</jats:italic> showed the highest values in mean of G and S<jats:sub>G</jats:sub>. In conclusion, despite the liver and gallbladder having similar sonographic features, the grey‐level histogram showed that liver echotexture and echogenicity differ among species.</jats:p>