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<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:sec> <jats:title>Aims</jats:title> <jats:p>Assuming the saturated, <jats:italic>θ</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>s</jats:italic></jats:sub>, and residual <jats:italic>θ</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>r</jats:italic></jats:sub> volumetric water contents of a seed as known inputs, we present a methodology to determine the hydraulic properties of a seed: <jats:italic>α</jats:italic>, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> parameters and hydraulic conductivity <jats:italic>K</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>s</jats:italic></jats:sub>.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Methods</jats:title> <jats:p>The seed is considered as a porous material in which water flow is governed with the same hydraulic properties defined for soils. Using the HYDRUS-2D software, the hydraulic properties of a seed were estimated from the inverse analysis of several cumulative seed imbibition curves measured at different seed water potentials, <jats:italic>h</jats:italic>. The optimum number of <jats:italic>h</jats:italic> was evaluated on synthetic seeds. The theoretical analysis was validated in laboratory experiments on barley, wheat and vetch seeds, where imbibition curves were measured with germination tests at seven levels of <jats:italic>h</jats:italic> (from 0 to -2.50 MPa).</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Results</jats:title> <jats:p>The theoretical analysis showed that accurate estimates of <jats:italic>α</jats:italic>, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>K</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>s</jats:italic></jats:sub> can be obtained if the most negative <jats:italic>h-</jats:italic>values are included in the optimization. The sensitivity analysis showed that the method allows obtaining a unique solution of <jats:italic>α</jats:italic>, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>K</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>s</jats:italic></jats:sub>. The optimization error on the theoretical <jats:italic>α</jats:italic>, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>K</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>s</jats:italic></jats:sub> was less than 1%. A satisfactory validation was also obtained on the experimental seed imbibition curves, with robust fits between the measured and optimized data. A unique solution of <jats:italic>α</jats:italic>, <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>K</jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>s</jats:italic></jats:sub> was also obtained in all cases.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Conclusions</jats:title> <jats:p>A new method to determine the hydraulic properties of a seed is presented. This methodology could be used in different areas involving seed imbibition and also to simulate seed imbibition in different scenarios.</jats:p> </jats:sec>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:sec> <jats:title>Aims</jats:title> <jats:p>Intensive soybean/maize intercropping, a specific form of intercropping, holds promise in addressing the challenges posed by increasing food demands, diminishing cropland areas, deteriorating soil quality, and escalating environmental pollution.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Methods</jats:title> <jats:p>To evaluate the potential of this system, we conducted a national meta-analysis, quantifying its absolute yield gain (net effect, NE) and land use efficacy (land equivalent ratio, LER). We further investigated the underlying mechanisms by examining local climate, soil properties, and field management practices and then developed random forest (RF) models to assess the system's potential, incorporating current information on natural resources.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Results</jats:title> <jats:p>In China, an average NE of 3.2 ± 0.1 Mg ha<jats:sup>−1</jats:sup> and LER of 1.4 ± 0.02 were achieved by intensive soybean/maize intercropping. The variance of NE was significantly influenced by air temperature (10%), soybean delay days (8%), and maize plant density (9%). Similarly, the LER was strongly driven by soybean delay days (14%), sunshine hours (11%), and maize density (10%). Notably, this intensive intercropping system efficiently utilizes available resources, such as light, temperature (heat), accumulated temperature, and soil nutrients, particularly in regions characterized by low soil fertility and limited agricultural resources. Ultimately, the RF model estimated substantial overyielding of 2 800 kg per hectare, representing approximately 1.4 times the current soybean and maize production under China's monoculture.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Conclusions</jats:title> <jats:p>The implementation of intensive soybean/maize intercropping is highly beneficial throughout China, especially in areas with limited agricultural resources. The Yangtze River Basin, in potentially, emerges as the most suitable region for adopting this intensive intercropping practice.</jats:p> </jats:sec>