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The Japanese landslide expert team conducted landslide investigation in and around Machu Picchu Citadel since March 2000 in cooperation with the Instituto Nacional de Cultura (INC) and the Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales (INRENA). The investigation results and the cooperation scheme between ICL and the Government of Peru are introduced.

In the past, probably a series of retrogressive landslides scraped a part of the mountain ridge of Machu Picchu slope along a shear band almost parallel to the present slope. The flat area was formed by landslides on the mountain ridge. Inca people were likely to have constructed a citadel on this flat part of mountain ridge. Landslide debris provided them weathered debris and soils possible for farming. When undercutting by river erosion reached the level of another shear band, another series of retrogressive landslides have proceeded along the shear band near or a little bit higher than the present river bed. The process was faster in the landslide block (no. 1) including the Hyram Bingham road, and delayed in the landslide block (no. 2) including the Inca’s citadel because the river erosion to the slope was stronger for block no. 1 due to sharp curvature of river route. The slope deformation affecting the citadel part is not real landslide at present, but it is a precursor stage of landslides, namely it can become to be a real landslide as the result of retrogressive development of landslides from the Urubamba River and from the block no. 1 side.

The initial slope monitoring using extensometers by the Japanese team of the Disaster Prevention Research Institute of Kyoto University (DPRI/KU) started with cooperation from INC and INRENA from November 2000. One year monitoring in 2001 was presented. After the establishment of the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) in 2002, the initial cooperation agreement on Machu Picchu between the Government of Peru and DPRI/KU has developed to the cooperation between the Government of Peru and the ICL. The International Programme on Landslides (IPL) C101-1 ’Landslide investigations in Machu Picchu’ consists of six groups including Japanese, Italian, Czech-Slovakian, Peruvian-Canadian groups in 2005. The Japanese team installed new four sets of long-span extensometers, three sets of GPS receivers, a Total Station with three prism mirror targets in 2004 and started monitoring of the displacement.

The geology of Machu Picchu area is characterized by granitoid bodies that had been emplaced in the axial zones of the main rift system. Deformation of the granite, caused by cooling and tectonic phases, originated 4 main joint sets, regularly spaced (few decimeters to meters). Several slope instability phenomena have been identified and classified according to mechanism, material involved and state of activity. They are mainly related to rock falls, debris flows, rock slides and debris slides. Origin of phenomena is kinematically controlled by the structural setting and relationship with slope face (rock falls, rock slide and debris slides); the accumulated materials are the source for debris flows. Geomorphological evidences of deeper deformations are currently under investigation.

A low environmental impact monitoring system has been established on the area with the purpose to minimize equipments usage and, in the mean time, to collect reliable data on surface deformations. The monitoring network is based on a GPS, multitemporal laser scanner survey, Ground based Radar interferometry (GB-SAR) and Satellite Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR). The preliminary results are partially confirming the field evidences of slope deformation but, in the mean time, they require a longer period of observations since the sliding processes are relatively slow.

The landslide hazards analysis was the principal motivation to start geomorphological investigations in the area of Machu Picchu Sanctuary. But very soon, the need of a broader research was revealed, because the landscape evolution of the Urubamba River meander, where the archaeological site is located, is rather complex. Besides slope movements, also deepwards erosion, and selective mass wasting by weathering, suffusion etc. has been active there. Majority of them have been following predisposition by tectonical structure. Large-scale slope deformations have seriously affected mountain morphology in the area. The actual activity of those deformations is not well known yet, inspite that systematic monitoring has provided information as about irreversible movements on open cracks of rock outcrops within the archaeological site up to 1 mmyr-1 (lengths of time series is mostly 3 years), as about movement across the Main Plaza up to 6 mmyr-1. There still are other possibilities to explain those movements by ground deformation due to underground erosion along tectonically shattered zones, or by settlements of heavy stone buildings on water more saturated grounds.

In any case, even under present state of knowledge, the occurrence of a large-scale catastrophically rapid slope collapse is improbable within the short time interval of months or several years, if present-day conditions are maintained (in the absence of a strong earthquake). The question of present day activity of large scale landslide bodies could be solved only by as multilateral research with using of all useful overlapping of geomorphology with hydrogeology, geophysics structural geology and engineering geology.

A ground penetrating radar survey was conducted in the spring of 2005 at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu, Peru by INGEMMET and the Geological Survey of Canada. The aim of the study was to evaluate the nature and characteristics of the shallow surficial sediments and uppermost bedrock at the citadel. Results of the survey permit a high level of resolution indicating that the surficial deposits consist of two separate unconsolidated facies. The uppermost part of the bedrock surface was also captured during the survey imaging. There is no evidence to support the presence of an extensive north-south trending fracture, fault or failure plane crossing the citadel.

Machu Picchu is an ancient Inca city located on a narrow ridge, within the Andes, approximately 80 km north-west of Cusco, Peru. This site of exceptional cultural heritage and its related infrastructure are being undermined by rapid debris flows, that are related to the presence of thick debris deposits produced by granite weathering, past slides and climatic conditions. On 26 December 1995 a rock fall/debris flow occurred on the road that leads to the citadel (Carretera Hiram Bingham) interrupting the traffic coming from the railway station of Aguas Calientes, and on 10 April 2004 a major debris flow, channeled in the Alcamayo stream, devastated the village of Aguas Calientes, causing 11 casualties and damaging the railway. Within the framework of the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) a program of monitoring the instability conditions at this site was undertaken. In this work the preliminary results of the field survey and the analysis of some very high resolution (VHR) satellite images are presented. A multi-temporal analysis of Quickbird satellite (from Digitalglobe©) panchromatic and multispectral data was carried out: an archive image dated 18 June 2002 was available while a new acquisition with a good image was obtained on 18 May 2004. The main purpose of the analysis was the reconnaissance of debris flows using remote sensing techniques. The remote sensing data analysis was integrated with a field survey, carried out in September 2004. This allowed us to confirm the interpretation of the images, to produce a detailed geomorphological map of the area around the Carretera Hiram Bingham and to assess the thickness of debris deposits on the slopes. The results constitute a first step towards a complete debris flow hazard assessment in the area, where the interactions between slope instability and land use can produce very critical conditions.

Extremely slow deformations are a frequent phenomenon in the territory of Western Carpathians. These slope movements are in common generated by (geological, structural, morphological, geomechanical, hydrogeological, etc.) and factors (climate factors as temperature, precipitation, air pressure etc.). One of several possibilities how to get more detailed information about kinematics of the rock displacements is monitoring. Within the monitoring records indicating rock slope movement besides real displacements (length/time) climate factors mentioned above are included. In our study, from among several external factors, we tried to estimate the daily temperature fluctuations influence on slope movement - i.e. its kinematics and dynamics as well as on monitoring recording sets. This paper describes the thermally induced influences on the rock mass behavior (expansion, contraction) as well as the possibility of data records filtering and thus to bring representative and essentially correct data into slope activity estimations, geotechnical calculations as well as time prediction for potential failure.

The temperature monitoring we performed at Spiš Castle (Eastern Slovakia), a monument included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The historical site of Bamiyan is affected by geomorphological deformation processes which were enhanced during the Talibans’ bombing in March 2001, when the two standing Buddhas, dating back to sixth century were destroyed. An invaluable cultural heritage was irremediably lost and the consequences of the explosions, as well as the collapse of the giant statues, added greatly to the geological instability of the area. Traces of rocks recently slid and fallen are relevant proofs of the deterioration of its stability conditions and most parts appear prone to collapse in the near future.

Under the coordination of the UNESCO, a global project to assess the feasibility conditions for the site’s restoration was developed; field data were collected and a mechanism for the potential cliff and niches’ evolution was provided. In the mean time some consolidation works were carried out in the most critical rock fall-prone areas to avoid any further collapse in the coming winter season, but also to enable archaeologists the safe cataloguing and recovering of the Buddha statues’ remains, still laying on the floor of the niches. The emergency activities started in October 2003 and included: the installation of a monitoring system, the realization of temporary supports for the unstable blocks, the stabilization of the upper-eastern and upper-western parts of the small Buddha niche, the minimization of the environmental impact of the actions taken. Consolidation works were mainly implemented by professional climbers, directly operating on the cliff.

Landslide risk assessment and disaster management are challenging problems in nowadays along with the progress of societal development towards mountainous area. Through a Japan-China joint research project for the landslide hazard assessment in the ancient imperial resort palace of Lishan, Xian, China, detailed investigation has been performed on the Lishan slope to assess its landslide risk, and then offer suitable preparedness method. It was clarified that the Lishan slope is deforming, showing the characteristics of precursor landslide movement. A short-span and two lines of thirteen long-span extensometers installed over high trees proved the effectiveness of the monitoring method. They gave an evidential deforming data showing the landslide risk which made the decision by the Chinese national and municipal governments to install landslide prevention measures. The development of semi real-time monitoring system enables us to give warning of landslide disaster in advance.

Tianchi Lake area of Changbai Mountains is an area with frequent and dense debris flow disasters due to the special volcano geology and landform. In this area the three basic conditions inducing debris flow developed. The widely distributed accumulation of collapse and landslide provide the main solid sources of debris flow; the high and steep slopes along the Valley of Edaobai River take the land-form of steps with a big gradient, to provide the moving way; and the concentrated rainstorm in summer provide debris flow for the force to move. The mount-slope type is the main type of debris flow occurred in the area, and it can be classified into further two sub-types according to the formation condition and activity, namely frequently active debris flow and relative stable debris flow. Based on analysis of controlling factors of debris flow, to evaluate the risk degree of 8 debris flow galleries. The result shows a good correspond with the practical situation, i.e. this method has a valuable application foreground.