Catálogo de publicaciones - libros

Estrogens and progestogens are two classes of female steroidal hormones whose presence in the environment has been associated with the appearance of certain alarming reproductive and development effects, such as feminization, decreased fertility, and hermaphroditism, in living organisms exposed to these compounds. Synthetic chemicals resembling these natural hormones are now well established in human medicine (mainly as contraceptives and for treatment of hormonal disorders) and in animal farming practices (usually as growth promoters). They are therefore produced on a large scale every year. Mainly due to unsuccessful removal in wastewater treatment plants, they are continuously released into the aquatic environment. Adverse effects on aquatic wildlife at concentrations as low as ∼1 ng L1 have been reported. Studies have also shown that estrogens and progestogens are easily distributed in the environment and may accumulate in river sediments. However, little is known about their long-term environmental impact. In this chapter, the main sources of estrogens and progestogens, their principal pathways into the aquatic environment, and the primary routes of exposure to these compounds are discussed. This chapter also reviews the methods described so far for the analysis of estrogens and progestogens in wastewater, sludge, sediments, and soils as well as the environmental levels found in these compartments.

This chapter is focused on the problem caused by the effluent discharges from paper and pulp mills. At present, three aspects should be considered in paper and pulp wastewater management: (1) the toxicity and high BOD5 of whitewaters and effluents; (2) the lack of knowledge on specific compounds responsible for the toxicity of the liquid and solid residue (sludge) and (3) the difficulty of treating whitewaters, which are characterized by the presence of suspended solids, colour odour, a high organic content, and an overall high toxicity. This chapter attempts to give an overview of organic compounds that contribute to the toxicity of paper mill waters and effluents, their levels, toxicological characterization and the methodologies used for their analysis. Families of compounds that are included are natural compounds such as resin and fatty acids, lignins, lignans and carbohydrates, and additives used during paper making such as surfactants, biocides and slimicides. In addition, part of the chapter is devoted to describing the wastewater treatment strategies used to decrease the toxicity and BOD of the effluents, which are used to indirectly phase out toxic organic pollutants from paper and pulp whitewaters (Table 1).

The current status of the analysis of pesticides in wastewater by chromatographic techniques and toxicity bioassays is reviewed and evaluated. When using chromatographic techniques, the low concentrations of pesticides present and the complexity of the wastewater matrices require a sample concentration step prior to measurement. Also, cleanup techniques need to be applied for better detection of the analytes and to avoid ion suppression. The most commonly used methods of analysis for the detection of pesticides in wastewater samples involve GC–MS and LC–MS. However, an evaluation only based on chemical analysis may be insufficient without information related to the negative effects generated. Bioassays play an important role in the detection and screening of the toxic effects of pesticides in complex samples such as wastewaters. They provide a response that relates to the overall effects (synergism, antagonism) of the chemicals present in wastewaters and they assess the short- (acute) and long-term (chronic) effects. Therefore, both chemical and biological analytical strategies are relevant to the correct evaluation of pesticides in wastewaters, their behavior during wastewater treatment, and the reuse of water resources.

In recent years, there has been significant interest in understanding the input of fragrance materials (FMs) to aquatic ecosystems, and this has driven a substantial amount of research on the removal of FMs during wastewater treatment. Because FMs are semivolatile and have a wide range of physical-chemical properties and biodegradabilities, understanding their removal during the treatment process is complex. The mechanisms of FM removal from wastewater include biodegradation, sorption, and/or volatilization. A wide array of analytical methods have been developed to measure FMs in wastewater influent, primary effluent, final effluent, and solids. Wastewater studies have been conducted in the U.S. and Europe. Finally, the efficient removal of FMs during wastewater treatment is not only dependent on the biodegradability and physical-chemical properties of the FM, but is also highly dependent on plant operation and design.

A significant number of immunochemical methods have been described for the determination of the most important emerging pollutants. The present chapter is a compilation of the information available today regarding immunochemical determination of industrial residues with a high potential risk of causing negative effects in the environment, wildlife, and public health. Homogeneous immunoassays, ELISAs, FIIAs, immunosensors, and selective immunoaffinity sample treatment methods have been reported for the analysis of an important number of these substances. The bases of these methods are briefly presented. Immunochemical methods for anionic (LAS), nonionic (APEs and APs), and cationic surfactants (BDDAC and DDAC) are extensively reviewed and the features of these assays discussed, particularly if examples of their application to environmental samples have been described. Similarly, a great amount of information has been collected regarding immunochemical determination of organochlorinated substances such as PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs, and chlorophenols. On the contrary, immunochemical analysis of organobrominated substances, such as the BFR agents, seems to be still a goal. Immunochemical methods have also been reported for bisphenol A and phthalates showing excellent features. The commercial availability of some of these methods is also presented.

A review on immunochemical methods for the analysis of pharmaceuticals is presented. A broad range of pharmaceutical categories and personal care products may reach the aquatic environment after excretion through industrial, domestic, and hospital wastewater. With few exceptions pharmaceuticals for human medicine are not high-production chemicals and the expected environmental concentrations should be low. However, the use of some of these chemicals in veterinary medicine increases the probability that the concentration values in the aquatic environment might reach higher levels. On the other hand certain drugs with limited use are of concern because of their high pharmacological potency, which creates a risk even at trace levels. Attending to these considerations and to the potential human risks, this review focuses on antibiotics, hormones, analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and cytostatic agents. Although these procedures have only been applied to the analysis of environmental samples on a few occasions, immunochemical methods for several of these substances exist and some of them are commercially available due to their use in clinical laboratories and forensic medicine.

Sampling and laboratory analysis are not well adapted to wastewater quality monitoring in a process control or hazards prevention context, for which on-line/on-site measurement is preferable. Before considering the implementation and constraints of on-line systems, the reasons for and ways of monitoring are discussed. The main existing and up-and-coming solutions are then presented, showing that with respect to the number of parameters and substances to be monitored, for regulation purposes for example, only a few of them are measurable with on-line devices.