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Erratum to: L. Ayalon, C. Tesch-Römer (eds.), , International Perspectives on Aging 19, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73820-8

This book is about ageism. Ageism is manifested in the way we think, feel and act towards age and ageing. It is directed towards people of any age group and can be both positive and negative. But- in this book our focus is on the complex and often negative construction of old age. The book includes four different sections: the concept and origins of ageism, the manifestations and consequences of ageism, interventions to target ageism and ways to research ageism. The present introductory chapter concerns the development of the concept of ageism and micro-, meso- and macro-level theories on the occurence of ageism.

One of the most widespread beliefs about the occurrence of age discrimination is that it is attributable to age stereotypes. However, the mere activation of age stereotypes is by no means a sufficient condition for the occurrence of age discrimination. Accordingly, the aim of this chapter is to critically review the hypothesis that age stereotypes cause age discrimination considering their conceptual relatedness as well as empirical evidence. It is important to acknowledge that age discrimination and age stereotypes are domain-specific phenomena. Besides taking contextual aspects into account, we also consider the perspectives of both the actor (i.e., the discriminating person) and the perceiver (i.e., the older adult who is being discriminated against and/or perceives age discrimination) to better understand the stereotype-discrimination association. Regarding the actor’s perspective, several studies identified moderators of the relationship between age stereotypes and age discrimination. This perspective can be complemented by considering that older adults themselves also hold age stereotypes that affect their interpretation of other peoples’ behaviour towards them and even their own behaviour. Accordingly, a reciprocal relation between the stereotypes held by both parts is easily conceivable where their expectations and behaviours mutually reinforce each other. In order to understand the relations between age stereotypes and age discrimination it is necessary to consider personal characteristics and contextual constraints on both parts, and to acknowledge the added complexity and domain-specificity of the relations between age stereotypes and age discrimination in real life interactions.

This chapter offers a theoretical contribution to the discussions revolving around multiple marginalizations based on age. Our main focus is on gendered ageism, where vulnerability and marginalization is based on the interaction of age and gender, and its potential to highlight the processes and practices of marginalization. Based on the understanding of ageism as a socio-cultural practice involving privilege, subordination, and inequality, we rework existing conceptualizations of multiple marginalizations and of gendered ageism. The understanding of ageism as a form of doing enmeshed in interlocking power structures draws attention to the importance of socio-cultural context and the dynamics involved in the creation and reproduction of social reality, including social inequalities. This chapter draws on a wide range of existing studies to illustrate and explain this new approach. It concludes with an outline of an applicable research programme that yields novel ways of exploring multiple inequalities in later life and gendered ageism more specifically.

This chapter presents a model that explains the origins of ageism at the individual level among different age groups. The model is based on three theories. Terror management theory provides an explanation for the roots and motives of ageism towards old age groups among young and middle-aged groups as well as among the young-old age group. Stereotype embodiment theory provides a complementary explanation for self-ageism among the young-old and old-old age groups. Finally, social identity theory focuses on the diverse expressions of ageism among different age groups. The model highlights a unique feature of ageism, which, in contrast with other types of prejudice and discrimination, is not directed towards distinct out-groups, but rather towards our future selves by symbolizing a fear of death and its accompanying deterioration. In order to cope with this fear, different age groups differentiate themselves from the old age group by adopting diverse strategies including younger age identities, a distinction between the third and the fourth age, as well as theories like successful and active ageing. Because of the gradual reduction of personal and social resources people often encounter in the later stages of life, we suggest some long-term strategies that recognize decline as a valid dimension of ageing and personhood and emphasize alternative resources.

All over the developed world, populations as a whole and the workforce within them are ageing. Old age discrimination in the sphere of the workplace, prejudices against older workers, and discrimination of older employees have moved into the focus of politicians, employers, trade unions, and social scientists alike. As ageism at the workplace has not only negative consequences for older workers, but also for companies’ productivity and performance, the aim should be to avoid the occurrence of ageism and mitigate its impact. In order to be able to fight ageism, it is important to trace its origins. Research on ageism in the workforce generally refers to the micro, meso and macro level determinants of ageism. Even though companies and organizations on the meso level have a great impact on the occurrence of ageist behaviour—as they provide ‘the places of work’—this level is seldom looked at systematically. This chapter therefore aims to present a conclusive overview of theories and findings in the scientific literature regarding the role of organizations/companies in cultivating, preserving or reducing ageism within them. First, the chapter looks at organizational characteristics that affect ageism, such as organizational/company structure and hierarchy, age structure of the workforce, company size, shared values and aspects of age-friendly human resource management. As organizations/companies never exist within an institutional vacuum, in a second step we subsequently identify contextual factors, such as sectorial affiliation and legal frameworks that shape and affect companies and organizational behaviour, and hence ageism within the organization.

This chapter looks at the phenomenon of ageism and age discrimination in the labour market from a socio-political perspective and draws attention to key factors in its emergence. The approach adopted here goes beyond the individualistic and micro accounts adopted mostly by psychologists, as well as beyond the meso perspective as used in organisation and work environment studies. Our aim is rather to examine the role of macrostructural processes and transformations and to identify their link to the persistence of ageism and age discrimination in contemporary labour markets. First, an overview of the most predominant conceptual understandings of ageism and age discrimination in employment are provided, which clarify the theoretical and empirical distinctions between the two related, but not synonymous, concepts. This section also provides a life-course perspective on age discrimination in the labour market by looking at experiences of different age groups, as well as an elaboration of the intersectional approach to ageism. Second, the chapter investigates the dynamics between the phenomena of ageism and age discrimination and a range of socio-political contexts, cultural settings, and legal and economic conditions. We then discuss the costs and consequences of age discrimination in employment, as well as particular policy responses.

This introductory section outlines the various ways in which ageism is manifested. Specifically, we discuss ageism as an individual occurrence that impacts the life of each and every one of us. Ageism also manifests at the societal level and thus, impacts society at large. The chapters in this section address ageism in young and old. Chapters discuss ageism in the health and mental health systems, in the media and in immigration policies. The breadth and depth at which ageism impacts our lives provide a direct call for action.

In the developed world, later life has brought more opportunities to contribute to society and pursue personal goals outside the role of paid work, combined with less stigma and greater recognition of the worth of older people. These values do not necessarily extend to the “oldest old” where some people in the fourth age (people 80 years old and over) continue to face increasing stigma and societal stereotypes from those in the third age (people 60–79 years old). Ageism between these two cohorts is rarely discussed in the literature. Potential ageism involves stereotypical perceptions of the oldest old and may prove detrimental to those transitioning from the third to the fourth age if a resultant resistance to maintain their engagement and independence into older age occurs. This chapter explores the subtleties of these inter-cohort ageist discourses particularly from a health and social care perspective and considers the implications for transitions of older people between the third and fourth age. It addresses the challenges and adjustments needed to ensure continuing and inclusive engagement in society, in order to support independence to grow old without the fear of discrimination.

Many older adults in our society suffer from loneliness – a painful, distressing feeling arising from the perception that one’s social connections are inadequate. When loneliness is experienced over prolonged periods of time, it can become devastating to older adults’ physical and mental health. Loneliness has been associated with depression, cognitive decline, and mortality. As the ageing population around the world grows in size and proportion, tackling late life loneliness is becoming a top priority in both ethical and economic terms. Previous studies have attempted to attribute late life loneliness to individual (micro) and social network (meso)-level characteristics. We argue that ageism at the societal (macro)-level – encompassing stereotypes, prejudices, and de facto discrimination against older adults – predisposes the older population to neglect, social isolation, and ultimately, loneliness. We propose three mechanisms whereby ageism may contribute to loneliness. First, chronic social rejection may incline older adults to avoid and withdraw from social participation. Second, individuals may self-embody the stereotypes of old age such as old age being a time of loneliness. The last path is an objective one, which emphasizes age-based discriminatory practices that increase social exclusion of older adults thereby increasing their risk of becoming lonely.