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<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Male hypogonadism implies decreased function of one or more testicular cell population, i.e. germ, Leydig and/or Sertoli cells. In the normal prepubertal boy, Sertoli cells are very active, as indicated by high anti‐Müllerian hormone (AMH) and inhibin B secretion, whereas the functional activity of Leydig cells is minimal, as evidenced by low testosterone production, and germ cells do not undergo the full spermatogenic process. Klinefelter syndrome is the most frequent cause of hypogonadism in the adult male. In this review, we discuss whether the gonadal failure is already established during infancy and childhood. In Klinefelter syndrome, there is increased germ cells degeneration from mid‐foetal life – resulting in a decreased number at birth – which persists during infancy and childhood and becomes dramatic during puberty. Controversial results exist in the literature regarding Leydig cell function in Klinefelter boys: while some authors have found normal to low testosterone levels in infancy and childhood, others have reported normal to high values. Sertoli cell products AMH and inhibin B are normal in prepubertal boys and only decline during mid‐ to late puberty.</jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Conclusion: </jats:bold> Klinefelter syndrome is a primary hypogonadism affecting all testicular cell populations. Germ cells are affected from foetal life, and a severe depletion occurs at puberty. Leydig cell function may be normal or mildly affected in foetal and early postnatal life. Sertoli cell function is not impaired until mid‐ to late puberty, as reflected by normal AMH and inhibin B in Klinefelter boys.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Aim</jats:title><jats:p>Parents sometimes show young children YouTube videos on their smartphones. We studied the interaction of 55 Indian children born between December 2014 and May 2015 who watched YouTube videos when they were 6–24 months old.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods</jats:title><jats:p>The children were recruited by the researchers using professional and personal contacts and visited by the same two observers at four ages, for at least 10 minutes. The observers recorded the children's abilities to interact with touch screens and identify people in videos and noted what videos attracted them the most.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results</jats:title><jats:p>The children were attracted to music at six months of age and were interested in watching the videos at 12 months. They could identify their parents in videos at 12 months and themselves by 24 months. They started touching the screen at 18 months and could press the buttons that appeared on the screen, but did not understand their use. The children preferred watching dance performances by multiple artists with melodical music, advertisements for products they used and videos showing toys and balloons.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion</jats:title><jats:p>Children up to two years of age could be entertained and kept busy by showing them YouTube clips on smartphones, but did not learn anything from the videos.</jats:p></jats:sec>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>The intrauterine‐growth‐restricted (IUGR) state, particularly the asymmetric one, has been associated with ‘Developmental Origins of Health and Disease’ (DOHaD) consequences later in life. Several environmental factors, acting during the phase of foetal developmental plasticity interact with genotypic variation, ‘programme’ tissue function and change the capacity of the organism to cope with its environment. They may be responsible for chronic illness risk in adulthood. Detection of possible future DOHaD consequences at a very early age, by applying relevant biomarkers, is of utmost importance. This review focuses on biomarkers possibly predicting consequences from bone, psychoneural system and lung. Although no concrete biomarker has been identified for bone disorders in adulthood, reduced brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) concentrations in cord blood and BDNF DNA methylation might predict schizophrenia and possibly depression, bipolar disorder and autism. High surfactant protein D (SP‐D) concentrations in cord blood of IUGR foetuses/neonates could point to structural lung immaturity, resulting to asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adult life.</jats:p>

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Aim</jats:title><jats:p>Lung ultrasound (LUS) has not been included in the current guidelines for the diagnosis of bronchiolitis so far, even though data concerning its effectiveness have been published.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods</jats:title><jats:p>A systematic literature review was carried out to determine the role of LUS scores in the diagnosis and prognosis of patients aged 0–2 years with bronchiolitis, using MEDLINE, Scopus and ScienceDirect databases from their inception to December 2021.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results</jats:title><jats:p>A total of 18 studies matching our eligibility criteria were analysed for the purposes of this review and 1249 patients with bronchiolitis were included. The sonographic and radiological findings were comparable and chest radiography was found to have a higher sensitivity in ruling out severe complications such as concomitant pneumonia. The LUS scores were correlated to the clinical course of bronchiolitis and it was able to predict the need of admission in paediatric intensive care unit, the duration of hospitalisation and the need for respiratory support.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion</jats:title><jats:p>This review suggests that LUS could have both a diagnostic and a prognostic role in bronchiolitis during first evaluation in the emergency department and hospitalisation. Physicians could adjust management according to sonographic findings as a useful adjunct to the clinical ones.</jats:p></jats:sec>