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This section aims to describe the salutogenic construct of the sense of coherence. It begins with a reflection of the ontological and epistemological background of salutogenesis, which is not particularly described and explained to any significant extent in the publications by Antonovsky. The core concepts, the sense of coherence and the generalized resistance resources within the salutogenic model of health are explained. The measurement of the sense of coherence and the validity and reliability of the sense of coherence scales are extensively described. The sense of coherence is a concept that can be applied at different system levels, at an individual level, a group (family), on organizations and societal level. Therefore, a life cycle perspective is adopted for this section, describing sense of coherence in children and families, in adolescents and in older adults. Finally, salutogenesis, a resource-oriented approach on peoples’ abilities, is much more than the measurement of the sense of coherence. The salutogenic umbrella is here used as a metaphor for showing some related concepts.

Antonovsky developed the 29 item Orientation to Life Questionnaire to measure the sense of coherence, having 11 items measuring comprehensibility, 10 items measuring manageability, and 8 items measuring meaningfulness. The response alternatives are a semantic scale of 1 point to 7 points. The questionnaire yields a summed score with a range from 29 to 203. A shorter version of 13 questions of the original form was developed by Antonovsky, where the score ranges between 13 and 91 points, and other scales have been developed, for example, to measure the sense of coherence at the family and community levels. Antonovsky’s scales have been used in at least 49 different languages in at least 48 different countries. Recent research shows that the SOC seems to be a multidimensional construct rather than unidimensional as Antonovsky believed. Antonovsky maintained that the SOC develops until the age of 30 years, thereafter remaining relatively stable until retirement, and decreasing in old age. This assumption finds no support in subsequent empirical research. As Antonovsky hypothesized, a wealth of research shows his scales to be reliable, valid, and cross-culturally applicable instruments. Criticism of the SOC concept is described and discussed.

The goals of this chapter were to present the significance of the salutogenic conceptualization to the development and education of children, exploring in depth not only children with typical development, but also children with special needs, their schools, families, and community environments. In order to understand the developmental perspective of resiliency, we reviewed studies examining sense of coherence (SOC) at children’s different developmental stages, from infants and toddlers through preschool children to school-aged children (up to 12 years of age). A comprehensive review of the literature (from 2000 to 2013) on SOC and children demonstrated a diverse range of themes: SOC within the child’s contextual environments—family, school, peers and community, and SOC as a predictor of children’s health and health behavior.

The main aim of this chapter is to summarize the main finding regarding SOC and adolescents in the last decade since adolescence is a period of growth and development which can potentially influence the emotional, motivational and behavioral components of SOC. The chapter is divided into the following sections: Adaptations of the Sense of Coherence Questionnaires; Sense of Coherence construct during adolescence; SOC, health, mental health, and psychosocial behavior; and Ecological contexts; Family, school, peers, community. In conclusion, we raise several directions for future research in the field of salutogenesis and sense of coherence during adolescence. First, we suggest to examine in more depth the role of family coherence as a protective factor for health and mental health as well as the relationships of family SOC with success in school and with other psychosocial behaviors. Moreover, since non-Western cultural groups were less studied in this context, several questions regarding the universality of the concept of SOC were raised. Thus, it seems important to further examine this issue. We focus on the meanings of sense of coherence in such cultures as well as the understanding of the questionnaire and the implication of SOC in such societies.

Population ageing is a global trend and even though years added to life often are lived in good health; it will have an impact on healthcare, housing and facilities, and social security costs. Healthy ageing in place, especially in one’s own home and community, increasingly receives attention from health professionals, researchers, and policymakers. In this chapter, we first discuss the meaning of the concept of healthy ageing, and how Sense of Coherence contributes to this process. Next, we discuss the characteristics of the community in which older people live their lives and how the community can provide resources (GRR and SRR) to strengthen Sense of Coherence and hence perceived well-being and quality of life.

This Part covers diverse applications of salutogenesis in key everyday settings across the life span: community/neighborhood, city, restorative environments, school, university, work, workers in prisons, and organizations. First, this chapter briefly introduces key concepts of everyday settings in health promotion. Second, the chapter highlights the diversity of applications of salutogenesis in these everyday settings, shows promising developments emerging from this diversity, and draws conclusions for the future of salutogenesis within everyday settings.

There is growing consensus that the places where people live and the various social processes, relationships, and psychosocial concepts associated with strong healthy communities and neighborhoods make an important contribution to health. Where you live makes a considerable difference; people living in more affluent communities, for example, are more likely to experience better self-reported health and well-being. This is particularly evident in current theoretical and policy debates concerning the salutogenic and so-called strength or assets-based approach to health; healthy communities have various social and physical resources available, which they can recognize, share and utilize, can result in stronger SOC, increasing their ability to cope and thrive. Within health promotion we actively encourage communities to organize themselves for better health and well-being. The concept of “community” is both complex and subjective and difficult to define. So we start by conceptualizing the definitions, dimensions, and meanings of community—beyond a physical location—underpinning this chapter. There are several ideas linking the community or neighborhood as a setting, including community as a place to live, connectedness (social capital) and social action (the development of a strong SOC). The evidence is variable in quality and furthermore, few studies explicitly apply the theory of salutogenesis when they study health and well-being in the community context. The body of this chapter is devoted therefore to summarizing the available research about salutogenic and asset-based community interventions, drawing upon examples from empirical work. In doing so, we will highlight debates emerging around the concepts of a salutogenic framework and health assets in relation to community and neighborhood. As such, we are specifically interested in examining the resources (and/or assets) of communities and neighborhoods and the associated processes enabling these resources to be accessed for the benefit of the community’s health and well-being.

This chapter highlights how cities can facilitate good health through urban planning, with a special focus on implementation of the goals of the Healthy City Network and Health in all policies (HiAP). A number of resources, such as accessibility, infrastructure, green spaces, social connectedness, sense of place, and inclusive planning strategies, have all been linked to favourable health outcomes. The quality of resources, as well as inclusive planning and administration strategies, is beneficial for a strong sense of coherence and good health. However, implementation of HiAP and a Healthy City approach faces challenges regarding the diversity of starting points, political will at higher levels, dependence on strong local engagement, and advocacy and public support. Special attention should be given to establish cross-sector collaboration over time and the need to raise awareness of conditions for good health to achieve HiAP on a local level. A closer look at how environmental resources might be internalized and become generalized resistance resources, and strengthen sense of coherence, might be a beneficial approach for future research.

Restorative environments support the renewal of adaptive resources that people have depleted while trying to meet everyday demands. In this overview of theory and research on restorative environments, we illustrate the complementarity and potential for integration of a restoration perspective with the salutogenic perspective in health promotion. We show how research on restorative environments can augment understanding of salutogenesis, calling attention to the dynamics of the depletion and renewal of resources needed for maintaining and promoting health and explaining how sociophysical environments can play a positive role in people’s ongoing efforts to manage diverse adaptive resources. We also show how research on salutogenesis can augment research on restorative environments, opening for a broader view of the kinds of resources that can become depleted and the different levels on which they are organized and become available. We close by elaborating on implications of our observations for salutogenesis research and practice, with a view to advancing the integration of the two research fields.

Work is both detrimental and health promoting. Antonovsky accentuated the distinction between eliminating stressors and developing health-enhancing job characteristics. He elaborated on job characteristics that potentially relate to a sense of coherence, offering a dense description of a workplace where individuals experience meaningfulness, manageability, and comprehensibility. This chapter presents models, measures, and intervention approaches that relate to the double nature of work and to both its pathogenic and its salutogenic qualities. Hereby, the view of Antonovsky is enhanced, insofar that health-promoting, salutogenic job characteristics are not solely understood as buffering the pathogenic effects of stressors at work, but have a direct effect on positive health outcomes. Antonovsky’s original model is first specified and simplified for the context of work. Then, Antonovsky’s line of thinking is related to frameworks researching job resources and demands. After a review of the prevalence of salutogenic measures in worksite health promotion, the point of making salutogenesis more visible in work-related research and practice is elaborated upon. This is illustrated with a practical example of a survey-feedback process promoting salutogenic work. Finally, the implications and challenges for practice and future research on salutogenic work are discussed.