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<jats:p> It is argued in this essay that the streets of Tralee in south-west Munster in the late 1820s and early 1830s were characterised by a protean, anarchic and often oppositional culture which was both diurnal and very frequently nocturnal in its context of enactment. Indeed, more often than not, darkness framed and enabled expressions of dissidence, resistance and criminality. Technology would, in due course, challenge the imperium of darkness. </jats:p>

<jats:p> Recent arguments for a shrinking, increasingly ‘gaelicised’ Pale have disguised the fact that the English Pale was expanding under the early Tudors. Piecemeal conquests by the Kildare earls from Irish chiefs extended its boundaries significantly, while marcher lineages like the Berminghams were also rehabilitated as loyal English subjects. English rule and law were restored across Berminghams’ country, English culture and identity were everywhere promoted across the Pale, additional land and people were incorporated, English manorialism restored, and tillage extended. The Pale's supposed ‘gaelicisation’ saw Irish ‘earthtillers’ now ‘sworn English’, undertake English jury and military service, and defend their manorial villages with English longbows. The reward for loyalty and service of William Bermingham, captain of his nation, was ennoblement as 1st baron of Carbury. </jats:p>

<jats:p> We present a microlevel database of Irish cooperative creameries covering the period 1897–1921. The data were hand collected from the annual reports of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society (IAOS) and contain information from 531 creameries and covering 49 variables. We perform some initial analysis of the data, finding considerable heterogeneity in the productivity of creameries as measured by the milk/butter ratio. We focus on differences between the four historical provinces of Ireland, finding that the south of Ireland (the historical centre of butter production) was on average less productive than the north at the start of the period, although this changes after 1913, when Ulster becomes the least productive province. These results present interesting avenues for future work, given the IAOS’ focus on founding creameries in the north of the island. </jats:p>

<jats:p> During the Second World War (1939–1945), the rate that flour was extracted from wheat to make wholemeal bread was continuously increased to save wheat supplies in Ireland. Once the dangers of eating this bread became known, doctors and scientists advocated that extraction rates be reduced alongside the fortification of flour to counteract the potential side effects. Despite several calls for action, no changes were made until connections were drawn between calcium deficiency, rickets and tuberculosis (TB). This article uses flour as a case study to understand the complexities of introducing health policy at critical periods, such as war. While interest in public health was raised due to the war, the war also ensured that attempts at sound food policies were limited. Higher extraction rates temporarily relieved wartime pressures, but this had severe health effects on the wider population. By mapping flour extraction rates alongside the incidence of disease, this article argues that political short-terminism exacerbated public health problems as symbolised in the black loaf. It was the medical profession that managed to successfully encourage action on the sole basis that flour extraction had created a health crisis among children and the poor. </jats:p>

<jats:p> The Gender Pay Gap Information Act 2021 is the most recent legislative effort in the Republic of Ireland to address the enduring gender pay gap. However, why is the gender pay gap an enduring aspect of Irish working life? Since independence, economic factors combined with religious influences saw male employment prioritised and by the early 1970s Irish women's workplace representation and average pay compared to male workers was low. This article explores the provisions of, and circumstances surrounding the introduction of two of the first acts addressing employment equality - the Anti-Discrimination (Pay) Act 1974 and the Employment Equality Act 1977 and considers two contrasting equal pay cases and their impact. Five decades later, what insights does the legislation's introduction provide? </jats:p>